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< Back to Issue 6 Cosmic Carbon Vs Artificial Intelligence by Gaurika Loomba 28 May 2024 Edited by Rita Fortune Illustrated by Semko van de Wolfshaar “There are many peculiar aspects of the laws of nature that, had they been slightly different, would have precluded the existence of life” - Paul Davies, 2003 Almost four billion years ago, there was nothing but an incredibly hot, dense speck of matter. This speck exploded, and the universe was born. Within the first hundredth of a billionth of a trillionth of a trillionth second, the universe began expanding at an astronomical rate. For the next 400 million years, the universe was made of hydrogen, helium, and a dash of lithium – until I was born. And thus began all life as you know it. So how did I, the element of life, the fuel of industries, and the constituent of important materials, originate? Stars. Those shiny, mystical dots in the night sky are giant balls of hot hydrogen and helium gas. Only in their centres are temperatures high enough to facilitate the collision of three helium-4 nuclei within a tiny fraction of a second. I am carbon-12, the element born out of this extraordinary reaction. My astronomical powers come from my atomic structure; I have six electrons, six protons, and six neutrons. The electrons form teardrop shaped clouds, spread tetrahedrally around my core, my nucleus, where the protons and neutrons reside. My petite size and my outer electrons allow my nucleus to exert a balanced force on other atoms that I bond with. This ability to make stable bonds makes me a major component of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates, the building blocks of life. The outer electrons also allow me to form chains, sheets, and blocks of matter, such as diamond, with other carbon-12 atoms. Over the years of evolution, organic matter buried in Earth formed fossil fuels, so I am also the fuel that runs the modern world. As if science wasn’t enough, my spiritual significance reiterates my importance for the existence of life. According to the Hindu philosophy, the divine symbol, ‘Aum’ is the primordial sound of the Cosmos and ‘Swastika’, its visual embodiment. ‘Alpha’ and ‘Omega’, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, represent the beginning and ending, that is the ‘Eternal’ according to Christian spirituality. When scientists photographed my atomic structure, spiritual leaders saw the ‘Aum’ in my three-dimensional view and the ‘Swastika’ in my two-dimensional view. Through other angles, the ‘Alpha’ and ‘Omega’ have also been visualised (Knowledge of Reality, 2001). I am the element of life, and within me is the divine consciousness. I am the beginning and I am the end. My greatness has been agreed upon by science and spirituality. In my absence, there would be no life, an idea humans call carbon chauvinism. This ideology and my greatness remained unquestioned for billions of years, until the birth of Artificial Intelligence. I shaped the course of evolution for humans to be self-conscious and intelligent life forms. With the awareness of self, I aspired for humans to connect back to the Cosmos. But now my intelligent toolmakers, aka humans, are building intelligent tools. Intelligence and self-consciousness, which took nature millions of years to generate, is losing its uniqueness. Unfortunately, if software can be intelligent, there is nothing to stop it becoming conscious in the future. Soon, the earth will be populated by silicon-based entities that can compete with my best creation. Does this possibility compromise my superiority? A lot of you may justifiably think so. The truth is that I am the beginning. Historically, visionaries foresaw asteroid attacks as the end to human life. These days, climate change, which is an imbalance of carbon in the environment, is another prospective end. Now, people believe that conscious AI will outlive humans. Suggesting that I will not be the end; that my powers and superiority will be snatched by AI. So the remaining question is, who will be the end? I could tell you the truth, but I want to see who is with me at the end. The choice is yours. References Davies, P. (2003). Is anyone out there? https://www.theguardian.com/education/2003/jan/22/highereducation .uk Knowledge of Reality (2001). Spiritual Secrets in the Carbon Atom . https://www.sol.com.au/kor/11_02.htm Previous article Next article Elemental back to

< Back to Issue 2 What’s the forecast for smallholder farmers of Arabica coffee? For millions of smallholder farmers residing in the rural highlands of East Timor and Ethiopia, Arabica coffee is a major source of income. Yet, weather patterns are threatening their future livelihoods. With global coffee yields predicted to dramatically reduce in coming decades, how will this touch Melbourne’s privileged cafe culture? by Hannah Savage 10 December 2021 Edited by Ashleigh Hallinan & Irene Yonsuh Lee Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin The world loves its coffee. After crude oil, coffee is the most exported commodity in the world and global demands are projected to skyrocket alongside demographic growth (2). With a strong inclination by Australian citizens to participate in our bourgeois cafe culture, Australian demand can be expected to mimic this trend. However, as climate change continues to throw curveballs, pressures to satisfy these demands will be felt by all in the supply chain. There are many species of coffee beans, yet global consumption relies only on a narrow genetic selection. Coffea Arabica is the dominant coffee bean species in commercial production (approximately 70 percent), followed by Coffea Robusta (2). Agricultural research and breeding of these crops are not extensive, considering their high sensitivity to climate. If Arabica was a child, it would be the no-mash-touching-the-peas type. Though a laborious crop to farm, this fussy plant has low yield when too much shade deprives it of sunlight or too little shade shrinks soil moisture levels. It insists on altitudes 1000-2000m above sea level and 2000mm of rainfall per annum (2). Moreover, the optimal air temperature for Arabica is 18-21 degrees Celsius (3). With these environmental specifications, it is expected that half of the world’s optimal areas for growth of Arabica and Robusta are expected to be lost by 2050 due to climate change (13). After Hurricane Maria hurtled across Puerto Rico in 2017, 80 percent of coffee trees were destroyed and rural livelihoods were flattened overnight (4). Climate change does not pay sympathy towards poor and marginalized rural communities. Frequency and intensity of extreme weather is increasing in many developing nations. Changes in temperature, weather events and rainfall patterns are already challenging the ability of farmers to adapt. Rainfall distribution is becoming more erratic and unpredictable. This is a key concern to farmers as rain patterns correlate with timing of flowering and fruit production (2). Flowering is usually triggered by the first rains of the wet season, yet unpredictable rains during the year may cause flowering at undesirable times. Unsynchronized ripening requires additional harvesting cycles, costing farmers more money and labour. In addition, water scarcity and warmer air temperature also have profound impacts on harvests. Prolonged drought leads to misshapen or small beans with marks and imperfections (3). Low moisture and heat stress causes wilting, death of crops or acceleration of bean growth (3). At temperatures above 23 degrees, fruit ripens too fast for a rich, sweet coffee flavour to develop (2). What will thrive from these changing climatic conditions are pests, diseases and coffee rust fungus, which are becoming more prevalent in areas previously unfavourable for their survival (5). The insect Coffee berry borer has been a particular challenge to coffee producers globally, as it feeds on coffee beans and damages plantations. One to four generations of these critters are born each fruiting season (5). Climate change brings uncertainty to the future livelihoods of millions of smallholder coffee farmers around the world, who produce 70 percent of the world’s coffee (6). While world leaders dance around pretty statistical graphs of their carbon-cutting “achievements”, there is the underlying issue that global efforts to lower emissions will not have equal consequences across geographical locations. Poorer economies abundant in fossil fuel resources are pressured to implement policies that further increase their vulnerability and are left grappling to find quick coping strategies. Although it accounts for only a small percentage of global coffee production, East Timor is one of the most economically dependent on coffee. East Timor, the small-island nation 700km north-west of Darwin, has relied on its oil sector for economic development in recent decades, but now interest from foreign traders is depleting with global trends towards renewable energy. The coffee industry has been identified by the East Timor government as being a key opportunity for sustained economic growth and reduction of rural poverty. More than 18 percent of Timorese households rely on coffee production as their primary source of income (7). Coffee producers have a poverty rate of 47.9 percent, which is higher than the national rate of poverty, 40.3 percent (7). Many coffee-producing households are without electricity or access to clean water and regular meals. Figure 1: Distribution of coffee-selling households in Timor-Leste (7). Timorese Arabica coffee farmers today celebrate achieving yields their grandparents would have considered inadequate in the early 20th century during Portuguese occupation. This reflects how much the climate has changed across generations. Rain, once predictable to begin at the end of every November, is now inconsistent and reduced (1). Unfortunately, adaptive solutions often demand high investment and low reward in the initial implementation stages. Farmers may be reluctant to remove their aging, unproductive coffee trees and replant new ones for fear of losing a major source of income while waiting for financial output from the new growth (9). There is the temptation to instead plant new crops between existing ones, which exploits soil nutrients and harms coffee yields. Small short-term rewards also discourage poorer farmers from participating in collective reforestation projects (9). There is much work to be done to restore ecosystems devastated from rainforest clearances during Indonesian colonisation in 1975, which occurred mere months after independence from Portugal. Shade trees that characterise these tropical rainforests play important roles in supporting coffee growth. If farmers grow coffee crops amongst the rainforest, crops will benefit from wind shelter and rich soil nutrients (8). Shade reduces daytime air temperature and increases humidity. In the region of Baguia, the collaboration project WithOneSeed, (co-founded by Melbourne’s own ‘The Corner Store Cafe’ owners), actively alleviates poverty by restoring rainforests and granting farmers profits from carbon credit trades. Farmers plant an indigenous shade tree, carbon credits are purchased by foreign customers to offset fossil fuel emissions and a remuneration of 50cents per tree is given to farmers each year so long as the tree survives (10). WithOneSeed therefore provides rural coffee producers with income before trees mature and re-establishes tara bandu, customary resource management that sustained Timor Leste’s environment for centuries pre-colonisation. Organic beans are purchased from smallholder farms at a fair price by The Corner Store and roasted in Oakleigh. The supply chain is transparent and traceable and profits go towards funding WithOneSeed planting. Plus the coffee is good quality and grown without nasty chemicals! (11) Simple adaptive responses are also being made by coffee producers in the world’s fifth largest Arabica producer, Ethiopia (3). As Arabica has been said to originate here, it is perhaps unsurprising that 16 percent of the population rely on coffee for their livelihood. Figure 2: The main coffee growing areas of Ethiopia (3). In the case of a global temperature rise of 2.4 degrees Celsius, land areas suitable for coffee production in Ethiopia would be expected to decline by 21 percent (12). Resilience for smallholder Arabica producers now depends on creative solutions using limited technology and resources available to rural communities. Relocating farms to higher altitudes of Ethiopian highlands is one solution. But this transition comes at a cost for coffee producers in the form of social network losses. While climate conditions of higher land might be more suitable, other factors such as land tenureship rights and soil quality may pose new obstacles (13). As rain seasons shorten and dry seasons lengthen, Ethiopian coffee producers aim to boost irrigation by diverting nearby streams. This is an ancient and cost-effective solution that enables coffee to successfully be grown in areas classified unsuitable (3). Similarly, coffee producers are carrying out traditional techniques of mulching, where laying compost over soil conserves soil moisture (3). However, more government investment in supporting these adaptations is needed to keep ahead of global warming (3). Sustainable agriculture also needs to be met with fair prices. Many Ethiopian farmers do not have access to foreign traders who will pay premium prices that outweigh production costs. Coffee prices are determined by the international market, or “C price”, which is based on the theory that cost is proportional to global demand, with no consideration of quality or organic farming practices (14). This supports and encourages cheap, unsustainable agricultural practice because sustainable or not, farmers will receive the same revenue for their produce. To combat this, Ethiopian business CoQua, based in Addis Ababa city, facilitates opportunities for private producers to link with international clients and initiate direct lines of trade (14). Through CoQua, Melbourne’s Seven Seeds cafe were able to establish a trade relationship with private smallholder Ethiopian Arabica producers. Seven Seeds claim to pay 3.56 times the “C price” (14). Continue as we may to remain disconnected from the challenges of an environmentally fragile coffee industry, it is only a matter of time before global reduction makes noticeable impacts on Melbourne’s shielded society. What will happen when coffee stocks fail to meet Melbourne demand? Seven Seeds co-owner Mark Dundon told The Sydney Morning Herald that he predicts coffee prices will rise, despite general reluctance of consumers to spill more than one bank note from their wallets for a flat white (14). And why shouldn't we pay more for our hot beverages if producers vulnerable to food insecurity are paying more from the brunt of climate change? The following decades have a bitter outlook, but the recent pandemic outbreak enhanced our ability to envision rapid global disruptions where no corner of the world is excluded. Certainly a disruption to Melbourne coffee culture is a trivial issue in the grand scheme of things, but as consumers it is one worth considering now. The future for Melbourians to satisfy their cultural addiction balances dangerously on a series of environmental conditions being met in foreign highlands. While it’s true that being a “smart consumer” can feel like a matter of blind faith (how fair is fair trade?), favouring businesses that have ethical, direct lines of trade with smallholder producers is one small, immediate solution towards building a sustainable future for our treasured beans and those in the firing line of climate change. References: 1. Jack Board, “From crop to kopitiam, Asia's coffee is facing its biggest threat - climate change,” CNA, published 29 February 2020, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/climate-change-coffee-prices-timor-leste-crops-1338741 2. Abaynesh Asegid, “Impact of Climate Change on production and Diversity of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L) in Ethiopia,” International Journal of Research Studies in Science, Engineering and Technology 7, 8 (2020): 31-38. 3. Kew Royal Botanic Garden, Coffee farming and climate change in Ethiopia, (London: The Strategic Climate Institutions Programme), 37, https://www.kew.org/sites/default/files/2019-01/Coffee%20Farming%20and%20Climate%20Change%20in%20Ethiopia.pdf 4. “How is Climate Change Impacting the Future of Coffee?,” TechnoServe Business Solutions to Poverty, published 16 September 2021, https://www.technoserve.org/blog/climate-change-impacting-future-coffee/ 5. Getachew Weldemichael and Demelash Teferi, “The Impact of Climate Change on Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) Production and Genetic Resources,” International Journal of Research Studies in Agricultural Sciences (IJRSAS) 5, 11, (2019): 26-34, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.20431/2454-6224.0511004. 6. Michon Scott, “Climate and Coffee,” Science Information for a climate-smart nation, published 19 June 2015, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-and/climate-coffee 7. Brett Inder and Nan Qu, Coffee in Timor-Leste : What do we know ? What can we do ?, (Australia: Monash University), 17. 8. Simon P.J Batterbury, Lisa R. Palmer, Thomas R. Reuter, Demetrio do Amaral de Carvalho, Balthasar Kehi and Alex Cullen, “Land access and livelihoods in post-conflict Timor-Leste: no magic bullets,” International Journal of the commons, 9, 2, (2015): 619-647. 9. Lisa Walker, Understanding Timor Leste, (Dili: Swinburne Press, 2013), 22-158. 10. Andrew Mahar, “Meet the farmers helping to reforest Timor-Leste,” World Economic Forum, published 26 January 2021, Meet the farmers helping to reforest Timor-Leste | World Economic Forum (weforum.org) 11. “The Roastery,” The Corner Store, accessed November 2021, https://cornerstorenetwork.org.au/the-roastery 12. Cheikh Mbow et al., Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems, (2019), https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2021/02/08_Chapter-5_3.pdf 13. Yen Pham, Kathryn Reardon-Smith, Shahbaz Mushtaq and Geoff Cockfield, “The impact of climate change and variability on coffee production: a systematic review”, Climatic Change, 156, (2019): 609-630, The impact of climate change and variability on coffee production: a systematic review | SpringerLink 14. Dani Valent, “ 'The industry's at risk': the high price of cheap coffees,” published 31 May 2019, national/the-industry-s-at-risk-the-high-price-of-cheap-coffees-20190528-p51rti.html Previous article back to DISORDER Next article

< Back to Issue 5 Serial Killers Selin Duran 24 October 2023 Edited by Yasmin Potts Illustrated by Aditya Dey Serial killers. Do we love them or hate them? It’s hard to know, especially as the media surrounding them is increasing. From fiction to nonfiction killers, our society is obsessed with giving a voice and perspective to these people. We have movies, documentaries, TV series and even Youtube videos accounting the lives and stories of killers. Despite this, people rarely stop to ask themselves why they enjoy this style of media - some of the most wicked and gruesome acts, glorified for the interest of many. Yet, every day we are met with new shows highlighting the life of coldblooded killers. But why are we interested in them? It’s mostly a morbid curiosity; as humans, we are drawn to crime. We want to know why people choose to kill and how they do it. Jack Haskins, a University of Tennessee journalism professor, noted that "humans [are] drawn to public spectacles involving bloody death...Morbid curiosity, if not inborn, is at least learned at a very early age " (UPI Archives, 1984). As a collective, we have always wanted to explore the horrid acts of those who kill. But it’s only with the help of modern media that people enjoy them. Media loves a good story - and what makes a good story? A crazy serial killer on the loose. One of the earliest movies about a serial killer is Fritz Lang's 1931 film M . Set in Berlin, the film details a killer who targets children. Since then, a downward spiral of fictional serial killer movies has taken society by storm. Being all the craze during the mid-80s and 90s, the highest amount of serial killer media were produced in this timeframe. One of the most popular works is director Alfred Hitchcock's iconic Psycho, which won eight Academy Awards (IMDb, 2021). What is truly disturbing is the story of this film. Norman Bates, our killer, is deemed mentally insane and suffers from Dissociative Identity Disorder. Through his personality changes, he proceeds to kill two people during the film, in addition to multiple murders not depicted. Yet, when he is jailed, we learn that his actions were the result of abuse he endured when he was younger. Suddenly, we're forced to feel sympathetic towards his situation. How can that be a reasonable justification towards murder, and why do we applaud the film for this? As a society, accepting murder based on mental insanity seems more than unreasonable - but no one has questioned it thus far. This unfortunately happens not only with fictional killers, but with nonfiction ones. Our interest in killers turns into a way to inform ourselves of these situations (Harrison, 2023). We look to these documentaries and podcasts that tell the stories of the most notorious serial killers to learn something and prevent the situation from happening to us. All whilst indulging in content that emphasises these killers as being regular people, not evil individuals, who committed crimes for personal pleasure. We don’t need to see a biopic about the ventures of Ted Bundy and Jeffery Dahmer. Yet the second you search their names on Google, an all-star cast portraying the life of a man who tortured their victims fills your screen. This is certainly not an ethical thing to endorse. Despite this, not a single person thinks twice about it due to how common it is. Directors are profiting off victims and as a society, we are allowing it because of our curiosity. What happened to compassion? Because I certainly believe we have lost it. We have become so infatuated with killers that their actions seem unimportant to us. We yearn to discover more about their lives and forget that real people were implicated in these events. These killer stories provide bursts of short-lived adrenaline and then we return to our normal lives. In forgetting the consequences of these real stories, we are in many ways as bad as the killers themselves. And that is truly wicked. References Harrison, M. A. (2023). Why Are We Interested in Serial Killers? Just as Deadly: The Psychology of Female Serial Killers . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 17–31. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/just-as-deadly/why-are-we-interested-in-serial-killers/B35C2243B387273749EA164318C27623?utm_campaign=shareaholic&utm_medium=copy_link&utm_source=bookmark IMDb. (2021). Psycho (1960) - Awards . https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0054215/awards/ UPI Archives. (1984). Few answers on origin of morbid curiosity. UPI. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/04/07/Few-answers-on-origin-of-morbid-curiosity/7976450162000/#:~:text=%27Throughout%20human%20history%2C%20humans%20have Wicked back to

< Back to Issue 9 Axolotl: The Little God of the Lake by Danny He 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Saraf Ishman Edited by Ciara Dahl Creation “When the fifth sun was created, it did not move. The god of the wind carved a destructive path through the realm, slaying all other gods to induce the Sun into movement. Xolotl, guide for the dead, escaped his sacrifice by transforming into an invulnerable salamander. Eventually, even he was captured. Upon his sacrifice, the Sun began its course. Thus began the time of man.” - Author’s creative interpretation of Aztec mythology. The otherworldly biology of the axolotl ( Ambystoma mexicanum) attracted fascination among the Aztecs, who named it after the god of fire and lightning (1). They believed the shapeshifting god Xolotl took many forms, from a chimera depicted as a dog-headed man, to a skeleton, to a deformed monster with reversed feet (1). He was a renowned shapeshifter who would guide the dead on their journey to the afterlife (1). Centuries on, the axolotl would transform from a feared deity to a beloved icon and subject of scientific marvel. Fascination “Auguste Dumeril lounged by the lake. The humidity of Lake Xochimilco was beginning to take its toll. He had recently been informed of a marvellous reptile, one that resided exclusively in the canals of ancient Aztec, capable of regrowing limbs and organs including its brain. He wondered of the scientific possibilities of studying such a creature. A self-regenerating invertebrate could fascinate the scientific community and make wonderful contributions to medicine. This creature is to be taken back home to Paris” - Imaging a day with French Zoologist August Dumeril. The axolotl exhibits many biological peculiarities. Cousin of the tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum) , it has evolved over millions of years to take advantage of the bountiful resources of the Mexican basins (2). It remains in its juvenile, tadpole-like form throughout its adulthood, retaining its gills and breathing through its skin (2). The animal’s near perfect regeneration and its potential application for medical research fascinated scientists. French zoologist Auguste Dumeril was the first to conduct research on the axolotl after discovering it during his expedition to Mexico (3). Decades later, proteins were discovered which enabled the miraculous processes of complete, scar-free regeneration of an injured axolotl (4). Scientists continue to research methods in which the axolotl’s regeneration can facilitate trauma care and cancer research (4, 5). Conservation “Pedro set his spade down, straw hat clutched close to his chest. His eyes fixated on the water before him. Just below the surface, he had thought something had moved along the river bank. It had been many years since he had last seen an axolotl. The Méndez Rosas had been working as Chinamperos for generations. The axolotl had been a welcome sight for his forefathers, now it is a sign of hope for Lake Xochilmilco.” - an interview with Pedro, a 7th generation Chinamperos (7). Chinampas are large man-made farming islands created by the Aztecs (6). The capital city was built upon an island on a vast lake using a series of complex canals to prevent their city from flooding (6). Chinamperos use the lake's nutrient-rich soil to grow crops and create a self-sustaining system resilient to pests and disease (6). Productive chinampas ensure greater food security for Mexico City. A perfect symbiosis between water and land, a healthy chinampa cannot be without a healthy body of water (6). As chinampas grow they become refuge for wildlife such as the axolotl (6). As axolotls breathe through their skin, their presence indicates excellent water quality and hence a healthy chinampa (6). However, this once thriving ecosystem is now under threat from urbanisation. Drainage of the lake has resulted in the range of chinampas being limited to Lake Xochilmilco (6). Pollution and climate change has altered the landscape, while expansion of the city has resulted in the loss of precious wetlands (6). These changes have driven axolotls to critical endangerment. A once venerated and sacred creature has been neglected and buried by the relentless incursion of human civilisation (6). It is now a race against time to save the wild axolotls as few remain in Lake Xochilmilco (2). As urbanisation continues to bear down upon the chinampas, calls have been made to protect these dwindling areas of refuge (2). The fate of the axolotl is yet to be determined, but it is certain that the loss of another species will continue to set a dangerous precedent for the conservation of our ecosystems. Aztec mythology describes the god represented by the axolotl as the caretaker of his underworld kingdom and a guide for lost souls (1). Perhaps it is now important for us to take care of the axolotl as Xolotl has taken care of us. References Spence L. Mexico and Peru [Internet]. Senate; 1994. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://archive.org/details/mexicoperu00spen The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Axolotl. Britannica . July 20, 1998. Updated 27 August, 2025. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/animal/axolotl Reiß C. Cut and Paste: The Mexican Axolotl, Experimental Practices and the Long History of Regeneration Research in Amphibians, 1864-Present. Front Cell Dev Biol . 2022;10:786533. doi:10.3389/fcell.2022.786533 Huang L, Ho C, Ye X, Gao Y, Guo W, Chen J, et al. Mechanisms and translational applications of regeneration in limbs: From renewable animals to humans. Ann Anat . 2024;255:152288. doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2024.152288 Suleiman S, Schembri-Wismayer P, Calleja-Agius J. The axolotl model for cancer research: a mini-review. J BUON . 2019;24(6):2227–31. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338630505_The_axolotl_model_for_cancer_research_a_mini-review The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chinampa. Encyclopaedia Britannica . July 20, 1998. Updated 26 May, 2017. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/chinampa Nature on PBS. Wild axolotls are being saved by... nuns and Aztec gardens? | WILD HOPE. Youtube. September 12, 2023. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NL0ad3jBWRI&t=808s Previous article Next article Entwined back to

< Back to Issue 8 A Psychological ‘Autopsy’ of Ludwig van Beethoven: Dissecting Genius and Madness by Kara Miwa-Dale 3 June 2025 Edited by Steph Liang Illustrated by Ashlee Yeo ‘No great mind has ever existed without a touch of madness.’ – Aristotle Preface This is not an autopsy in the traditional sense. No scalpels or specimen jars will be involved. Instead, it is an autopsy of the mind – a retrospective exploration of the inner world of the great classical composer, Ludwig van Beethoven. Beethoven was considered a genius for revolutionising Western classical music with his emotionally powerful, structurally innovative, and highly complex compositions. He broke from convention, pioneered new musical forms, and continued to create masterpieces even after becoming completely deaf. Drawing upon insights from genetics, neuroscience, psychiatry, and anthropology, alongside the testimonies of Beethoven’s peers, we will piece together an understanding of how genius, creativity and mental affliction may be intertwined. Was Beethoven’s genius a product of madness, a triumph over it, or something different altogether? The Subject Name: Ludwig van Beethoven Occupation: Composer Age at Death: 56 Reason for Autopsy : To investigate the elusive connection between creativity, mental disorder, and the mysterious concept of genius I. The Witnesses: Testimonies from the Living To those that knew him, Beethoven was a paradox. One friend called him “half crazy”, noting violent outbursts, erratic moods and obsessive tendencies (1). Others saw him as “merry, mischievous, full of witticisms and jokes” (2). His talent and creative genius, however, were never in doubt. The poet Goethe, who met him in 1812, wrote: “Beethoven’s talent amazed me. However, he is an utterly untamed personality” (3). Based on Beethoven’s letters and accounts from friends, modern psychiatrists suspect that he may have lived with bipolar disorder (4). Yet, there is no way to be sure. Like the mind itself, Beethoven resists full understanding – a genius shaped by forces we may never fully comprehend. II. The Geneticist How can DNA offer insight into Beethoven’s genius? Often described as the blueprint of life, DNA offers fascinating insights into human potential – highlighting our predispositions, vulnerabilities, and even talents. However, it only tells part of the story. In 2023, an international team of scientists sequenced the DNA of five authenticated locks of Beethoven’s hair (5). Not long after, another group of researchers used this data to calculate a polygenic score estimating his genetic predisposition for beat synchronisation, a trait believed to be linked to musicality (6). Polygenic scores add up the small effects of many different genes to estimate someone’s likelihood of expressing a complex trait – like musical ability. Because these traits are influenced by many different genes working together, polygenic scores can be a helpful tool in exploring their biological basis. Curiously, Beethoven’s polygenic score for beat synchronisation was surprisingly low, implying that he wasn’t predisposed to have a strong sense of rhythm. Does this mean that Beethoven defied his own biology? Not necessarily. Polygenic scores have significant limitations. They don’t account for environmental influences – like the years of rigorous musical training that Beethoven underwent – or complex gene-gene and gene-environment interactions. Additionally, these scores are based on modern genetic datasets, so applying them to someone from the 18th century can reduce the reliability of the interpretation. That said, the story becomes even more fascinating when we consider research linking polygenic risk scores for psychiatric conditions – such as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia – to creativity. One large study found that people with a higher genetic risk for these conditions were overrepresented in artistic and creative jobs, although the association was small (7). This doesn’t mean that mental illness causes creativity, or that all creative people have a mental disorder, but it hints at a complex biological overlap. III. The Psychiatrist How does one make a psychiatric diagnosis from the grave? It is an impossible task, and an imprecise science, but we can draw inferences from historical accounts of a person’s behaviour. Beethoven seemed to exhibit behaviours consistent with bipolar disorder, a mental health condition characterised by extreme mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression). Letters written by Beethoven himself, along with observations from friends, may provide some insight. He was notably “prone to outbursts of anger, baseless suspicions, quarrels and reconciliations, fruitless infatuations, physical ills, changes of residences…and the hiring and firing of servants" (1). One friend remarked that ‘he composes, or was unable to compose, according to the moods of happiness, vexation or sorrow’, suggesting that his creative output fluctuated with his shifting emotional state (1). Individuals with bipolar disorder experience manic or hypomanic episodes marked by elevated mood, increased energy, rapid thought processes, reduced inhibition, and heightened confidence (8). These episodes may enhance creative thinking by promoting divergent thinking – the ability to generate novel ideas or unusual associations (9). Research shows that the medial prefrontal cortex, a brain region active during divergent thinking, is typically engaged during manic states (10). While it would be inappropriate to assign a clinical diagnosis based solely on anecdotal evidence, it is possible to speculate that Beethoven’s prolific composing periods might have corresponded to manic or hypomanic episodes. But how can we distinguish a clinical mood disorder from mere bursts of creative inspiration or genius? The U-shaped curve hypothesis offers one explanation, proposing that the relationship between ‘madness’ and genius is not linear (11). Mild to moderate expressions of bipolar disorder may actually enhance creativity by promoting divergent thinking, whereas severe illness can be debilitating and reduce creative output. This raises the possibility that Beethoven experienced a less severe form of bipolar disorder – one that fueled rather than hindered his musical brilliance. Building on this, psychological research also suggests that people in creative occupations tend to score higher on measures of ‘openness to experience’ (12). This personality trait describes the extent to which a person is curious, imaginative, and receptive to new ideas or unconventional beliefs. Studies have suggested that openness to experience is elevated among individuals with bipolar disorder compared to controls with no mood disorder (13,14). It is possible that Beethoven’s creative genius was influenced, at least in part, by the interplay between his personality and traits associated with bipolar. However, it is important to acknowledge the very real challenges of living with mental illness and to avoid romanticising the condition as a source of artistic inspiration. IV. The Anthropologist Cultural narratives - like the ‘mad genius’ and ‘tortured artist’ tropes - have long romanticised and distorted the relationship between mental illness and creative brilliance. However, contemporary understandings of mental health increasingly challenge the idea that extraordinary creativity requires psychological suffering. Beethoven’s life was marked by adversity. His father, believed by some to be abusive, enforced a strict practice regime for his music lessons and struggled with alcoholism – an affliction that would later cast a shadow over Beethoven’s own life. During Beethoven’s mid-twenties, he began to lose his hearing, becoming completely deaf by around 44. Yet, he continued to compose innovative symphonies, relying only on the music in his mind. Did Beethoven’s suffering fuel his brilliance? While some studies suggest a link between bipolar disorder and heightened creativity, it would be a mistake to suggest that mental illness is a prerequisite for genius. Many highly creative individuals have no history of mental illness at all. So why, then, does the ‘mad genius’ stereotype continue to endure? During Beethoven’s era – the Romantic period – suffering was often glorified as a source of artistic inspiration. Mental illness was poorly understood, and the emotional extremes exhibited by artists with mood disorders were frequently mistaken for signs of genius. Emotional intensity and instability were often seen as sources of inspiration for genius works of art. It wasn’t until the 20th century that bipolar was formally recognised as a mental illness. It is hard to say, based solely only on historical records, whether Beethoven experienced a mental health condition, or was simply an emotionally intense and unconventional individual. What we define as ‘normal’ or ‘abnormal’ behaviour is complex and deeply influenced by the social and cultural norms of the time. V. The Final Verdict So, what can we conclude from this evidence? Was Beethoven a genius because of his madness? Or in spite of it? Perhaps these are the wrong questions. Such binaries oversimply a reality that is far more nuanced. They invite us to reconsider our definitions of ‘normality’, ‘illness’ and ‘genius’. It is important to acknowledge the very real and devastating challenges associated with mental illness. Yet, it’s also true that some traits associated with conditions like bipolar disorder – such as divergent thinking – may intersect with creativity in complex ways. Rather than viewing these conditions purely as deficits, we might ask: could some features of mental disorder be better understood as extreme expressions of the broader, messier spectrum of human cognition and emotion? In the end, Beethoven remains an enigma – not because he was ‘mad’, but because he was unknowable and defied neat categorisation. Perhaps that is what genius truly is: not a clinical condition, or a byproduct of suffering, but a mystery that transcends explanation. References 1. Hershman DJ. Manic depression and creativity. Prometheus Books; 2010 Oct 5. 2. Bezane C. Bipolar Geniuses: Ludwig Van Beethoven [Internet]. Chicago: Conor Bezane; 2016 Mar 15. https://www.conorbezane.com/thebipolaraddict/thebipolaraddictbipolar-geniusesbeethoven/ 3. Carnegie Hall. Friends of Beethoven [Internet]. New York: Carnegie Hall; 2020 Mar 19 [cited 2025 May 31]. https://www.carnegiehall.org/Explore/Articles/2020/03/19/Friends-of-Beethoven 4. Erfurth A. Ludwig van Beethoven—a psychiatric perspective. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift. 2021;171(15):381-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10354-021-00864-4 5. Begg TJA, Schmidt A, Kocher A, Larmuseau MHD, Runfeldt G, Maier PA, et al. Genomic analyses of hair from Ludwig van Beethoven. Current Biology. 2023;33(8):1431-47.e22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.02.041 6. Wesseldijk LW, Henechowicz TL, Baker DJ, Bignardi G, Karlsson R, Gordon RL, et al. Notes from Beethoven’s genome. Current Biology. 2024;34(6):R233-R4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.025 7. Power RA, Steinberg S, Bjornsdottir G, Rietveld CA, Abdellaoui A, Nivard MM, et al. Polygenic risk scores for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder predict creativity. Nature Neuroscience. 2015;18(7):953-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4040 8. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5-TR . 5th ed, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022. 9. Forthmann B, Kaczykowski K, Benedek M, Holling H. The Manic Idea Creator? A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Relationship between Bipolar Disorder and Creative Cognitive Potential. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023;20(13):6264. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/20/13/6264 10. Mayseless N, Eran A, Shamay-Tsoory SG. Generating original ideas: The neural underpinning of originality. NeuroImage. 2015;116:232-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.05.030 11. Richards R, Kinney DK, Lunde I, Benet M, Merzel AP. Creativity in manic-depressives, cyclothymes, their normal relatives, and control subjects. Journal of abnormal psychology. 1988;97(3):281. 12.Feist GJ. A meta-analysis of personality in scientific and artistic creativity. Personality and social psychology review. 1998;2(4):290-309. 13. Matsumoto Y, Suzuki A, Shirata T, Takahashi N, Noto K, Goto K, et al. Implication of the DGKH genotype in openness to experience, a premorbid personality trait of bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2018;238:539-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.06.031 14. Middeldorp CM, de Moor MHM, McGrath LM, Gordon SD, Blackwood DH, Costa PT, et al. The genetic association between personality and major depression or bipolar disorder. A polygenic score analysis using genome-wide association data. Translational Psychiatry. 2011;1(10):e50-e. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2011.45 Previous article Next article Enigma back to

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< Back to Issue 8 Life Story of a Drug by Elijah McEvoy 3 June 2025 Edited by Weilena Liu Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin From the mythical visions of church goers who took mushrooms in the infamous ‘Good Friday Experiment’ to the extreme self-reflection of those ‘tripping’ off the traditional South American hallucinogenic tea Ayahuasca (1,2), humans have been painting the extraordinary narratives of psychedelics for thousands of years in thousands of settings. Put simply, psychedelics are a class of psychoactive drugs that can alter your thoughts and senses, inducing wild experiences not thought possible in your brain’s ground state (3). One of the most famous of these drugs is LSD. ‘Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds’ is said to have inspired entire Beatles albums and shown Steve Jobs “that there’s another side to the coin” of life (4,5). LSD is also a psychedelic that stands as an enigma in many regards. It is both naturally derived and synthetically created. It has been tested in psychological therapy and psychological warfare. Even the ‘trips’ experienced by its users entail both unexplainable hallucinations and scientifically proven phenomena. While being lesser understood, the stories of LSD’s enigmatic origins, uses and effects are just as interesting as those that come from its users. The Origins Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) or ‘acid’ for short is a semi-synthetic chemical compound with humble biological beginnings. LSD is derived from a class of alkaloid metabolite molecules that are naturally produced by the fungus commonly known as ergot. Ergot fungi are members of the parasitic genus Claviceps , which have been infecting staple crops and shaping society long before acid came to distort shapes in the eyes of its users (6). Epidemics of ergotism, a disease caused by these ergot alkaloids after ingesting contaminated crops, swept across Middle Age Europe and led to the deaths of tens of thousands of people (7). Despite credible arguments to the contrary, some historians have even suggested that the Salem Witch Trials may have been sparked by a form of this disease known as convulsive ergotism. Not only were the environmental conditions in 1691 Salem reported to be optimal for ergot growth in the town’s rye, but convulsive ergotism also induces distinct muscle contractions, paranoia and audiovisual hallucinations (8). These symptoms all would have given credit to the claims of bewitchment made by the young girls that instigated the accusations of witchcraft in the town. Aside from death and dark magic, this fungus has also been used as an effective therapeutic across several eras of history. It’s use as a medication for childbirth was recorded as early as 1100 BCE in China, with midwives using ergot or it’s alkaloids to reduce bleeding during birth, expedite delivery or induce an abortion (6,7). It wasn’t until modern pharmacology advanced in the 20th century that scientists began to chemically characterise these ergot alkaloids and use them as the basis to create potent drugs. The story of how LSD was first created and consumed is one that has been immortalised in history books and unofficial holidays. Dr Albert Hoffman, a Swiss biochemist working for the pharmaceutical company Sandoz, first synthesised LSD in 1938 as the 25th substance in a series of lysergic acid derivatives being evaluated by the company (9). Initial testing of this compound indicated it had no unique pharmacological uses beyond those of pre-existing ergot alkaloid derived drugs (9). However, Hoffman couldn’t shake the nagging feeling that LSD-25 had more to offer. After making another batch of the compound 5 years later, Hoffman’s suspicions grew stronger when he was forced to leave the lab early after entering a “dream-like state… [with] a kaleidoscope-like play of colours” (9). A few days later, in a moment that demonstrated both admirable scientific curiosity and blatant rejection of OH&S, Hoffman took a large dose of LSD himself and set in for a trip of a lifetime (9). Like all good scientists, he recorded his experience in a journal, writing at 3pm on 19 April 1943: “visual distortions, symptoms of paralysis, desire to laugh” (9). Hoffman’s notes for the day stopped there. The Uses April 19th has come to be celebrated as ‘Bicycle Day’, commemorating the seemingly endless and surreal bike ride home Hoffman undertook after this self-experimentation. However, a wacky trip was not the only thing that followed this discovery. After Hoffman distributed the drug to his superiors to try for themselves, LSD was sold on the market by Sandoz under the name Delysid. This drug was employed by psychiatrists throughout the 1950s as a treatment for alcoholism or simply ‘psychotherapy-in-a-pill’ for patients suffering psychological trauma (10,11). LSD not only garnered therapeutic interest from scientists but also more nefarious intrigue from the CIA. Seeking to get an upper hand in the department of mental warfare during the Cold War, the CIA bought up 40,000 doses of LSD from Sandoz and performed a variety of unethical experiments on unknowing prisoners, heroin addicts and even other CIA agents in an attempt to understand the drug’s potential for ‘mind control’ under the MKUltra project (12). Moving into the 60s, LSD’s use amongst budding leaders of the Hippie and Yippie movements gave the drug its countercultural status. Harvard Professor Timothy Leary, who was dismissed from his position due to experimenting (literally) with LSD, promoted the drug as an agent of revolution that allowed the youth of America to “turn on, tune in, drop out” (10) of repressive society. Due to its increasing association with these disruptive movements and eventual outlawing by the US government in 1966 (11), acid’s place in culture shifted out of labs and psychologist offices and into illicit recreational usage by experimental hippies and enlightened artists. The Trip Whether accompanied by an experienced monitor or listening to some soothing vinyl records yourself, the experience of taking LSD is predictably unpredictable. ‘Dropping acid’ is unique in that only micrograms of the drug are enough to elicit a palpable psychedelic experience (13), with most users diluting the dosage on tabs of blotting paper or sugar cubes (11). Following consumption, it takes as little as 1.5 hours for LSD to cross the blood-brain barrier, dilate the pupils and bring users to the peak intensity of the drug’s psychological effects (13). The bizarre experiences perceived by those ‘tripping’ on LSD is rooted in a now well-characterised receptor binding interaction in the brain. The nitrogen-based chemical groups of the LSD molecule first anchor themselves within the 5-HT2A serotonin receptors found in the synapses of neurons (14). While the serotonin neurotransmitter typically helps regulate brain activities like mood and memory, LSD binding instead causes the activation of distinct intracellular cascades within these brain cells (3). The importance of this interaction was demonstrated in experiments that proved blocking this receptor can cancel the acid trip all together (3). Recent studies that have further characterised the chemical structure of this interaction have also shown that 5-HT2A forms a lid-like structure that locks LSD into this receptor protein’s binding site and sets the user in for a long trip (14). From these individual cellular interactions, LSD ignites a burst of brain activity. Modern brain scanning technology has revealed that LSD first disrupts the capacity of the thalamus to filter and pass on sensory stimuli from the body to the cortex of the brain. Upon injection of LSD, patient’s brains demonstrated both an overflow of information running between the thalamus and posterior cingulate cortex and restriction of signals going to the temporal cortex (15). Not only does LSD modify the brain’s ability to sort out important stimuli from the outside world, but this small molecule has also been found to temporarily form new connections between different parts of the brain. Hoffman’s recount of how “every sound generated a vividly changing image” (9) on the first Bicycle Day can be explained by the increased connectivity of the brain’s visual cortex on LSD. This causes areas of the brain responsible for other senses or emotions to become involved in creating the images perceived in the user’s head, causing visual hallucinations and geometric distortion that have no basis in real stimuli coming from the eyes (16). In contrast, Hoffman’s feeling of being “outside [his] body” (9) likely came from decreased connectivity between the parahippocampus and retrosplenial cortex, two regions of the brain responsible for cognition. This severance has been correlated with the greater meaning that those tripping on LSD find in objects, events or music along with their characteristic ‘ego dissolution’ (16). This is a phenomenon where users no longer see the world through the lens of their own ‘self’ and instead feel an increased sense of unity with everything around them (17). Very Hippie ideas with a very scientific explanation. The Comedown and Beyond The float back down from the peak of an LSD trip takes up to 10 hours and leaves its users with a variety of stories and outcomes. Contrary to the fearmongering of parents and politicians, LSD does not leave holes in the brain, does not lead to addiction and has not directly led to the death of anyone as a result of overdosage (3). While the risk of a ‘bad trip’ and the feelings of severe anxiety, fear and despair that come with it may be traumatic, these are typically experienced when taking LSD in unsupportive environments without proper mental preparation (13). In fact, when LSD is taken in a manner closer to the controlled ritual practices surrounding psychedelics of old (3), acid is suggested to have long-lasting positive impacts on the user’s attitude and personality (13). It is these experiences that have rejuvenated the field of LSD research from its abrupt stop in the 60s. Modern investigations have picked up where these scientists left off and are evaluating the potential of utilising LSD-assisted therapy to alleviate anxiety and depression. Studies have focused particular attention on addressing these mental health conditions in those suffering from life-threatening illnesses like cancer (18). While some of these experiments lack the controls or data to make strong generalised conclusions, several studies have demonstrated that patients supplied with LSD reported lasting decreases in anxiety surrounding their condition, greater responsiveness to their families and improved quality of life (3,18). All of this is not to promote LSD as a harmless wonder drug. While rare, LSD has been linked to Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder, a condition in which people experience distressing ‘flashbacks’ to the effects and experiences of past psychedelic trips in a normal setting. Additionally, the changes in visual perception, emotion and thought while one is tripping can also cause users to make reckless decisions in dangerous situations (18). However, continuing to wage war against controlled experiments and supervised therapeutic trials with LSD only serves to limit the attempts of scientists in better understanding the balance between this drug’s risks and benefits. While our trip through the life of LSD may end here, there is still much to explore. The greater story of how we use it, how we view it and how it fits into our society is far from over. References Illing S. Vox. 2018 [cited 2024 Oct 23]. The brutal mirror: what the psychedelic drug ayahuasca showed me about my life. Available from: https://www.vox.com/first-person/2018/2/19/16739386/ayahuasca-retreat-psychedelic-hallucination-meditation Majić T, Schmidt TT, Gallinat J. Peak experiences and the afterglow phenomenon: When and how do therapeutic effects of hallucinogens depend on psychedelic experiences? J Psychopharmacol. 2015 Mar 1;29(3):241–53. Nichols DE. Psychedelics. Barker EL, editor. Pharmacol Rev. 2016 Apr 1;68(2):264–355. Gilmore M. Beatles’ Acid Test: How LSD Opened the Door to “Revolver” [Internet]. Rolling Stone. 2016 [cited 2024 Oct 23]. Available from: https://www.rollingstone.com/feature/beatles-acid-test-how-lsd-opened-the-door-to-revolver-251417/ Hsu H. The Lingering Legacy of Psychedelia. The New Yorker [Internet]. 2016 May 17 [cited 2024 Oct 23]; Available from: https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-lingering-legacy-of-psychedelia Haarmann T, Rolke Y, Giesbert S, Tudzynski P. Ergot: from witchcraft to biotechnology. Molecular Plant Pathology. 2009 Jul;10(4):563–77. Schiff PLJ. Ergot and Its Alkaloids. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 2006 Oct 15;70(5):98. Woolf A. Witchcraft or Mycotoxin? The Salem Witch Trials. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 2000 Jan;38(4):457–60. Hofmann A. How LSD Originated. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs. 1979 Jan 1;11(1–2):53–60. Massari P. Harvard Griffin GSAS News. 2021 [cited 2024 Sep 28]. A Long, Strange Trip | The Harvard Kenneth C. Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. Available from: https://gsas.harvard.edu/news/long-strange-trip Stork CM, Henriksen B. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide. In: Wexler P, editor. Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third Edition) [Internet]. Oxford: Academic Press; 2014 [cited 2024 Sep 28]. p. 120–2. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123864543007442 Stuff You Should Know. Did the CIA test LSD on unsuspecting Americans? - Stuff You Should Know [Internet]. [cited 2024 Aug 25]. (Stuff You Should Know). Available from: https://www.iheart.com/podcast/1119-stuff-you-should-know-26940277/episode/did-the-cia-test-lsd-on-29468397/ Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO, Emrich HM, Hintzen A. The Pharmacology of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide: A Review. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2008 Nov 11;14(4):295–314. Wacker D, Wang S, McCorvy JD, Betz RM, Venkatakrishnan AJ, Levit A, et al. Crystal structure of an LSD-bound human serotonin receptor. Cell. 2017 Jan 26;168(3):377. Sample I. Study shows how LSD interferes with brain’s signalling. The Guardian [Internet]. 2019 Jan 28 [cited 2024 Nov 10]; Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/28/study-shows-how-lsd-messes-with-brains-signalling Carhart-Harris RL, Muthukumaraswamy S, Roseman L, Kaelen M, Droog W, Murphy K, et al. Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2016 Apr 26;113(17):4853–8. Sample I. LSD’s impact on the brain revealed in groundbreaking images. The Guardian [Internet]. 2016 Apr 11 [cited 2024 Nov 10]; Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/apr/11/lsd-impact-brain-revealed-groundbreaking-images Liechti ME. Modern Clinical Research on LSD. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017 Oct;42(11):2114–27. Previous article Next article Enigma back to

< Back to Issue 4 Fool Me Once by Julia Lockerd 1 July 2023 Edited by Tanya Kovacevic and Elijah McEvoy Illustrated by Sonia Santosa I have rabies. I’m absolutely sure of it. I mean, I can't really tell, but that’s the silent killer, right? You don’t know you’re rabid till it’s all over, and you’re foaming at the mouth and biting your student tutor on the leg. Despite being completely safe here in Australia with its complete lack of rabies-having animals, I’m still pretty sure I’ve managed to catch it. Next week it will all be over for me and my tutor. Sorry, James. Of course, it’s not actually rabies that I’ve contracted, but a much more common condition: Medical Student Syndrome (1). Last week in my lectures, we learned all the ins, outs, and symptoms of the rabies virus. So, naturally, now we all have it. This health-related anxiety is a prime example of how our human brains can trick us into experiencing phantom symptoms. The same cognitive veil is used in clinical trials all over the world in order to test the efficacy of new drugs. We’ve all felt it. That moment when you question, ‘Is this real, or is my mind making its reality?’ We call this the placebo effect. The placebo effect is crucial to modern and historical experimental design. The ‘trickable’ nature of the human mind has changed the course of drug development as we know it. The effects’ success hinges on a patient's belief that they are receiving treatment for their ailment. The simple belief in a cure can often result in real physiological changes in an individual. This makes the placebo effect a very powerful tool in the development of new drugs for the market. In a placebo-controlled trial, half of the sample population will be blindly given a placebo, and the other half of the drug being tested. In order for a potential treatment to be considered effective, it must produce more significant results than the placebo group (2). We must improve our approach to designing and researching hypotheses. Can we use what we know about the placebo effect to make more accurate claims about modern pharmaceutical development? Well, in 2017, Dr. Sara Vanbheim of the Arctic University of Norway published a study that brought into consideration the possible effects of differing sexual characteristics on placebo efficacy (3). This idea could restructure the way experiments are designed going forward and potentially provoke a possible review of drugs already on the market. Is it possible that traditionally marginalised groups are underrepresented in the clinical trial process? Can we restructure experiments to be more inclusive? Are changes even really necessary? These questions were investigated through the compilation and calculation of placebo and nocebo effects on men and women over multiple previously conducted studies mostly centering around physical pain and the administration of analgesia. The term ‘nocebo’ defines the antithesis of a placebo (4), referring to adverse side effects a subject feels when given an inert version of the test drug. While placebos tend to have an analgesic effect, nocebos often cause negative effects or emotions when the subjects are told that they should expect/anticipate them. Before discussing any of these questions, it is worth noting that the Norwegian study focuses solely on classic sexual differences between cis-gender men and women. Though both keywords ‘gender’ and ‘sex’ were included in the study, research surrounding the specific effects of gender identity and gender-affirming therapies on placebos has not been thoroughly conducted as of 2023. It is with this focus that the following hypotheses are stated (3): “1) placebo responses would be stronger or more frequently observed in males than in females, 2) nocebo responses would be stronger or more frequently observed in females than in males, 3) verbally induced placebo responses would be more frequently observed in males than in females, and 4) conditioned nocebo responses would be more frequently observed in females than in males.” Results concluded that there was indeed a significant correlation between sex and placebo/nocebo effects when concerning pain relief. But what is truly fascinating is that while men received elevated levels of a placebo effect, such as reduced symptoms and analgesia, women were more susceptible to hyperalgesia and negative emotions. Those supposed ‘side effects’ appear to weigh more heavily on women (3). What does this say about how men and women process pain and information? The Norwegian study discusses the role of ‘psychophysiological mechanisms’ in pain pathways. Or, more simply, How stress and anxiety can affect the pain the brain perceives. In 8 of the 12 studies, men experienced significantly stronger analgesic effects from the placebo than women (3). It is plausible that men react more strongly to pain induced by stress hormones. This would explain why when taking a placebo, their anxiety level would decrease, and they would receive higher levels of analgesia than their female counterparts (3). Another study, upon which the Norwegian argument builds, investigates placebo delivery methods and their effect on perceived pain in men and women. In this study, men relied far more on verbal queues to provide analgesia, whereas women received a more significant effect from classic conditioning (5). These studies bring into question both the methodological and physiological effects of placebos on different sexes. What do these differences tell us about how men and women perceive the world? And what does this mean for the future of the placebo? The result of all of these studies is to show not whether placebos are bad or good, reliable or unreliable, but instead to highlight the differences in the physiological and psychological links when looking at different groups of people. At its core, a placebo is simply a trick of the brain, a psychological mirage. While the basis and reliability of placebos can be debated at length, their effect on the human brain teaches us something about ourselves societally. In all areas of medicine, the inclusion of people from all different backgrounds, genders, ethnicities, and ages is crucial so professionals know how to identify and treat various manifestations of a disease with grace and care. Now I know James responds better to verbal commands; I’ll be sure to tell him he has rabies the next time I see him. References Henning Schumann J. I contracted medical student syndrome. You probably will too. [Internet]. AAMC. [cited 2023 Jun 22]. Available from: https://www.aamc.org/news/i-contracted-medical-student-syndrome-you-probably-will-too Harvard Health Publishing. The power of the placebo effect - Harvard Health [Internet]. Harvard Health. Harvard Health; 2021. Available from: https://www.health.harvard.edu/mental-health/the-power-of-the-placebo-effect Vambheim S, Flaten MA. A systematic review of sex differences in the placebo and the nocebo effect. Journal of Pain Research. 2017 Jul;Volume 10:1831–9. National Cancer Institute NCI. Definition of nocebo effects [Internet]. www.cancer.gov . 2011. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/nocebo-effect Enck P, Klosterhalfen S. Does Sex/Gender Play a Role in Placebo and Nocebo Effects? Conflicting Evidence From Clinical Trials and Experimental Studies. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2019 Mar 4;13. 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Issue 5: Wicked 24 October 2023 This issue spotlights the mischievous, malevolent and morally dubious. Dive into a fascinating selection of articles by our talented writers below! A Message from the Editors in Chief Rachel Ko & Ingrid Sefton A word from our Editors-in-Chief. Columns Chatter Why Do We Gossip? Lily McCann Rumours, reputation and reciprocity: Lily debates the connotations we make with gossip and whether our assumptions of its malicious nature are justified. Ethics in Science Three-Parent Babies? The Future of Mitochondrial Donation in Australia Kara Miwa-Dale Cutting edge IVF technology is challenging our perceptions of what it means to be a parent. Kara deconstructs the social issues and ethics of mitochondrial donation. Features When Dark Matters Ingrid Sefton Dark matter: it has a name, yet no identity. Ingrid untangles the enigmatic nature of dark matter, probing into just what we do and don’t know about this cosmological puzzle. Black Holes: Defying Reality and Challenging Perception Mahsa Nabizada Black holes: portals into the unknown? Mahsa guides us through the mind warping and perception defying nuances of black holes. On the Folklore of Fossils Ethan Bisogni Ethan traverses the interface of palaeontology and mythology, considering the insights fossils provide into both natural phenomena and human nature. Wicked Invaders of the Wild Serenie Tsai In this article, Serenie examines the detrimental and dastardly effects of invasive species and their future implications. Griefbots: A New Way to Grieve (or Not) Akanksha Agarwal Akanksha considers the efficacy and ethics of AI Griefbots, exploring the implications for grieving, and the boundaries between life, death and human connection. Serial Killers Selin Duran Ever find yourself falling down the rabbit hole of gory true crime stories? Selin explores why our society is so infatuated with the lives of cold-blooded killers.

By Rachel Ko < Back to Issue 3 “Blink and you’ll miss it”: A Third Eyelid? By Rachel Ko 10 September 2022 Edited by Ashleigh Hallinan and Yvette Marris Rachel Ko Next The creature snarls a deep, thundering growl, tensing its protruding muscles that are covered in layers of thick, green, armour-like scales, individually rattling by the sheer force of its stance. Clenching its claws, the lizard glares with a bizarrely human expression, a villain trapped in a peculiar hybrid humanoid form. As the screams of terrified students fill the air, the camera zooms into the mutant’s glistening yellow eye, and it blinks; a slimy, translucent covering flickers across its eyeball, leaving a trail of moisture - grotesque proof of its reptilian form. A charm of the cinematic world is that aliens, radioactive spider superheroes and giant mutant lizards can exist in the same universe as the regular person. On a recent movie night, watching The Amazing Spiderman, the villain Lizard caught my eye. The creature is a metamorphosed version of human scientist Dr Curt Connors, who had attempted cross-species genetic regeneration on himself. Largely CGI, the Lizard’s primitive no-frills characterisation makes him an unconventional superhero antagonist. However, upon focus, these exaggerated reptilian characteristics are wha become staples of the Lizard’s uniquely villainous appeal: the alien-green colouring, the razor-sharp claws, the terrifying teeth and, of course, the glistening yellow eyes. Figure 1: Spiderman's 'The Lizard' In reference to the creation of these eerie eyeballs, animation supervisor David Schaub confirmed the purposeful inclusion of a nictitating membrane (1). This membrane is a slimy skin-like covering more commonly known as the Third Eyelid. In animals such as birds, reptiles, fish, amphibians, and some mammals (2), it acts as a bizarre protective mechanism that maintains moisture while retaining vision (3) - and also gives the Lizard’s glare that extra kick. Acting like a windscreen wiper, the membrane ‘nictitates’, meaning it blinks, to keep debris and dust out of the eye while simultaneously hydrating it. Its transparency also allows vision underground or underwater (4). Figure 2: A bird blinking! There is just one primate species known to have a prominent nictitating membrane: the Calabar angwantibo, also known as the golden potto, which is a rare African prosimian primate found only in Cameroon and Nigeria (5). Figure 3: Look at the Calabar's nictating membrane! The membrane is a major characterising feature of The Amazing Spiderman’s creepy mutant reptilian aura. However, this Third Eyelid actually has a homologous counterpart in Dr Connors’ eyes too. In fact, it is found in all humans, and is known as our plica semilunaris, a vertical fold of conjunctiva in the inner corner of the eye (6). Although it plays a minor role in eye movement and tear drainage (7), the plica semilunaris has nowhere near as great a function in humans as the nictitating membrane does in animals (8). The plica semilunaris and its associated muscles are merely an evolutionary remnant of the nictitating membrane that existed in our reptilian ancestors millions of years ago (9). Evolution is driven by selective advantage: the traits that allow organisms to survive and reproduce are the ones that are selected for and thrive within the population, passed down from one generation to the next (10). Traits that are disadvantageous to organisms decrease their chance of survival and reproduction, meaning fewer offspring will inherit the trait, causing it to eventually disappear from the population (11). The mystery remains as to why human ancestors lost the nictitating membrane in the first place, but it is likely that changes in habitat and lifestyle regarding eye physiology made it selectively advantageous to lose the Third Eyelid, rather than wasting precious energy on maintaining a no-longer-vital mechanism (12). For some reason, though, once the nictitating membrane had evolved into nothing more than a miniscule pink fold in the corner of the eye, it still persisted. Some argue that this is because humans have had no evolutionary incentive to completely lose them (13) – the plica semilunaris is just harmless enough that it has flown under the radar of evolution’s cut. Having suggested that, however, the primary clinical significance of the plica semilunaris has been connected to allergies of the eye, in which release of inflammatory molecules like histamine causes the tissue to become swollen and itchy (14). Thus, it is worth considering another argument: that the persistence of the plica semilunaris may be indicative of some beneficial function, particularly in its role in human eye protection. It has been found that the tissue observed in early intrauterine (within the uterus) development has a dense infiltration of immune cells like macrophages and granulocytes that serve to engulf and destroy foreign invaders of the tissue (15). Along with the abundance of blood vessels and immune chemical signalling, this has suggested a specialised role in eye protection, a benefit that may have very well ensured the plica semilunaris’ survival within human populations until this day (16). One fascinating clinical case, which showcases the outlandish capabilities of this vestigial feature, is of a child for whom it was not a question of why the plica semilunaris persisted, but an actual nictitating membrane. This peculiar instance was presented on a 9 year-old girl whose left eye had a non-progressive translucent membrane covering it horizontally. The globe of the eye was able to move freely beneath the membrane, suggesting that there was no attachment. However, it was causing amblyopia (also known as a lazy eye), and poor vision, so the nictitating membrane was successfully removed by simple excision (17). Figure 4: The plica semilunaris Figure 5: A clinical case of a human nictating membrane The only other recorded case of persisting nictitating membrane was an infant boy born prematurely with Edwards syndrome, who had nictitating membranes in both eyes (18). However, due to the baby’s infancy and condition, membrane imaging was unobtainable. Thus, arguably, the most striking aspect of the 9 year-old girl’s case was the pre-procedure imaging of her eye: an intriguing, almost alien-like fusion of the human eye and that of our reptilian ancestors. This case study can be interpreted as an exaggerated example of an existing link between the nictitating membranes we see in animals today, and the plica semilunaris that exists, tucked away, in the corner of our very own eyes. So, next time you find yourself staring into your partner’s baby blues, or putting on eyeliner in the mirror, keep an eye out for this fascinating evolutionary remnant; but be quick because - blink and you’ll miss it. References Sarto D. 'Spider-Man'’s Lizard Part 1: The Animation [Internet]. Animation World Network. 2012 [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: https://www.awn.com/vfxworld/spider-mans-lizard-part-1-animation Butler A, Hodos W. Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy. Hoboken (New Jersey): Wiley-Interscience; 2005. Why do cats have an inner eyelid as well as outer ones? [Internet]. Scientific American. 2006 [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-cats-have-an-inner/ The Equine Manual [Internet]. Elsevier; 2006. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-2769-7.X5001-1 Montagna W, Machida H, Perkins EM. The skin of primates. XXXIII. The skin of the angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarensis) [Internet]. Vol. 25, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Wiley; 1966. p. 277–90. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330250307 Plica semilunaris [Internet]. Merriam-Webster.com medical dictionary. [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/plica%20semilunaris LaFee S. Body and Whole [Internet]. UC Health - UC San Diego. 2016 [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: https://health.ucsd.edu/news/features/pages/2016-06-30-listicle-body-and-whole.aspx Dartt D. Foundation Volume2, Chapter 2. The Conjunctiva–Structure and Function [Internet]. Oculist.net. 2006 [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: http://www.oculist.net/downaton502/prof/ebook/duanes/pages/v8/v8c002.html Gonzalez R. 10 Vestigial Traits You Didn't Know You Had [Internet]. Gizmodo. 2011 [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: https://gizmodo.com/10-vestigial-traits-you-didnt-know-you-had-5829687 Sukhodolets V. V. (1986). K voprosu o roli estestvennogo otbora v évoliutsii [The role of natural selection in evolution]. Genetika, 22(2), 181–193. Sukhodolets V. V. (1986). K voprosu o roli estestvennogo otbora v évoliutsii [The role of natural selection in evolution]. Genetika, 22(2), 181–193. Gonzalez R. 10 Vestigial Traits You Didn't Know You Had [Internet]. Gizmodo. 2011 [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: https://gizmodo.com/10-vestigial-traits-you-didnt-know-you-had-5829687 Kotecki P, Olito F. We No Longer Need These 9 Body Parts [Internet]. ScienceAlert. 2019 [cited 4 May 2022]. Available from: https://www.sciencealert.com/we-no-longer-need-these-9-body-parts Bielory L, Friedlaender MH. Allergic Conjunctivitis [Internet]. Vol. 28, Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America. Elsevier BV; 2008. p. 43–58. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iac.2007.12.005 Arends G, Schramm U. The structure of the human semilunar plica at different stages of its development a morphological and morphometric study [Internet]. Vol. 186, Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger. Elsevier BV; 2004. p. 195–207. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0940-9602(04)80002-5 Arends G, Schramm U. The structure of the human semilunar plica at different stages of its development a morphological and morphometric study [Internet]. Vol. 186, Annals of Anatomy - Anatomischer Anzeiger. Elsevier BV; 2004. p. 195–207. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0940-9602(04)80002-5 Vokuda H, Heralgi M, Thallangady A, Venkatachalam K. Persistent unilateral nictitating membrane in a 9-year-old girl: A rare case report [Internet]. Vol. 65, Indian Journal of Ophthalmology. Medknow; 2017. p. 253. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijo.IJO_436_15 García-Castro JM, Carlota Reyes de Torres L. Nictitating Membrane in Trisomy 18 Syndrome [Internet]. Vol. 80, American Journal of Ophthalmology. Elsevier BV; 1975. p. 550–1. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9394(75)90228-7 Images Figure 1: Galloway, R. (2022, January 25). Lizard originally had a different look in 'Spider-Man: No way home'. We Got This Covered. Retrieved August 9, 2022, from https://wegotthiscovered.com/movies/lizard-originally-had-a-different-look-in-spider-man-no-way-home/ Figure 2: Hudson T. (2010, July) Retrieved Sep 13, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nictitating_membrane#/media/File:Bir d_blink-edit.jpg Figure 3: Sharma R. Calabar angwantibo - Alchetron, The Free Social Encyclopedia [Internet]. Alchetron.com. 2018 [cited 7 May 2022]. Available from: https://alchetron.com/Calabar-angwantibo Figure 4: Amir, D. (2019, January 16). Twitter. Retrieved August 9, 2022, from https://twitter.com/dorsaamir/status/1085557444196 081664 Previous article Next article alien back to

By Andrew Lim From Fusion to Submarines: A Nuclear Year By Andrew Lim 23 March 2022 Edited by Tanya Kovacevic Illustrated by Quynh Anh Nguyen A press conference in April, pledging millions of dollars to nuclear medicine. A university address in November, rethinking Australia’s nuclear attitudes. A fusion reaction in December, promising a clean energy revolution. No matter where you were or who you were listening to, the world of nuclear science was inescapable in 2022. It has been a year of great progress and, at times, even greater controversy – pairing milestone triumphs and landmark facilities with old fears and vast challenges. So, what has defined the year in nuclear science – and what comes next? Powering the Future Image 1: LLNL’s National Ignition Facility, where the successful fusion ignition experiment was conducted in December. Perhaps the year’s most eye-catching discovery came near its end. On 13th December, scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in California announced that for the first time, they had produced more energy out of a nuclear fusion reaction than they had put in. It seemed to herald the beginnings of a new era – nuclear power without toxic nuclear waste. However, to report this as the USA’s civilian nuclear energy story of the year perhaps fails to capture the whole picture. It’s an important discovery, sure, but it stands on another development, far less well known: the congressional funding battles of the preceding months. Crafted from intense negotiations led by Majority Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) and Senators Todd Young (R-IN), Mark Warner (D-VA) and John Cornyn (R-TX), the bipartisan CHIPS and Science Act (1) authorized and appropriated funds for nuclear research en masse. It provided everything from a five-year $50 million p.a. plan for “Foundational Nuclear Science” (2), to a $1.09 billion Electron Ion Collider (3) and a “National Nuclear University Research Infrastructure Reinvestment” scheme that included LLNL (4). Even private sector fission work received a boost in the form of the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (5), built on a compromise between Schumer and Senator Joe Manchin (D-WV), allocating billions of dollars in tax credits and loan guarantees for the sector. These funding boosts (and their predecessors), the work of years of lobbying and negotiations across multiple political factions, helped create the environment necessary for this research to thrive – and the breakthrough is as much a reminder of their importance as a triumph of nuclear physics. Health and Safety Image 2: Prime Minister the Hon Scott Morrison MP, flanked by Health Minister the Hon Greg Hunt MP (L) and backbencher Gladys Liu MP (R), announces a $23 million APME grant in April. The year’s nuclear focus extended into the medical sector, too. President Biden’s 2022 State of the Union address announced an appeal beyond partisan lines, one pillar of which was the use of the Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health (ARPA-H) to “drive breakthroughs in cancer” (6). His call was answered in budget appropriations bills, funding accelerators and reactors to research new radioisotopes, while also investigating safer handling methods for natural and artificial nuclear sources (7). Such emphases echoed as far away as our antipodean shores. While Australia may already produce 80% of the radioisotopes used in its own nuclear medical procedures (8), both major parties took 2022 to advance nuclear medicine production. In April, the Coalition government launched new grants for the Australian Precision Medicine Enterprise (APME) in Melbourne, with the Hon Greg Hunt MP, then Minister for Health, declaring nuclear medicine “the next stage of precision medicine.” (9) Mere months later, in the October Budget, his Labor successor the Hon Mark Butler MP pledged funds for medical supplies of Gallium-67 (10). Across party lines, nuclear innovation became key to funding in the health sector. Securing Tomorrow Image 3: Australian Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defence Richard Marles (L) meets with US Secretary of Defence Lloyd J Austin III (R) at the Pentagon to discuss AUKUS submarine arrangements in December. All that said, no article about nuclear science, especially these days, would be complete without a discussion of AUKUS. In late October, an interview with Australian Vice Admiral Jonathan Mead was published in The Australian, in which he underscored the importance of building a nuclear workforce – that is, building the educational pathways required to produce all the crews, builders, architects, regulators and scientists a nuclear submarine capability would entail (11). With Australia’s first nuclear submarine captains likely in high school, the infrastructure needed to train them simply doesn’t exist – and time is running out. This urgency was emphasised by academics at ANU, home of the only postgraduate qualifications dedicated to nuclear science in the country. In November, Vice-Chancellor Brian Schmidt AC spoke of an approaching “transformation in Australia’s cultural relationship” with nuclear science (12). In December, Dr AJ Mitchell, an ANU academic leading the development of a national program for nuclear science and education, reiterated Schmidt’s arguments. In comments provided to The Sydney Morning Herald and The Age, he advocated for a “sovereign capability…start[ing] yesterday,” to ensure an Australian nuclear workforce capable of meeting requirements not only for defence but also for health, regulation, space exploration and much more (13). However, this attitude was not without controversy. In today’s world, where the word ‘nuclear’ carries connotations of Chernobyl, Fukushima, and the Cold War, increased nuclear funding (even if only to regulatory or medical bodies) often sparks fear in the public imagination. In response to Mitchell’s comments, A/Prof Peter Christoff, a University of Melbourne climate policy researcher, expressed worries about increased “anxiety in our region”. More than anything else, this perhaps underscores the biggest issue facing the nuclear sector: the long-held apprehensions from media, governments and beyond that can often lump anything vaguely nuclear – from medication to missiles – under the same roof. What's Next? Image 4: US President Joe Biden delivering his 2023 State of the Union Address, advocating for increased cancer research funding, flanked by Vice-President Kamala Harris (L) and Speaker Kevin McCarthy (R). Over the first months of 2023, the tense balancing acts and decisions of the past year have only continued to grow. In the USA, President Biden’s 2023 State of the Union speech, delivered in early February, saw him reinvigorate his call to “end cancer as we know it” (14) – the same call that led to all that radioisotope funding last year. However, Biden faces a Republican House of Representatives seemingly hell-bent on blocking his legislation. With the resultant impasse threatening a wholescale government shutdown, the funding necessary for scientific leaps of the kind seen in 2022 remains in doubt. On the Australian front, our lack of a ready nuclear workforce is causing jitters amongst our allies – with leaked letters from US Senators Jack Reed (D-RI) and James Inhofe (R-OK) expressing concern to the Biden administration about Australia relying on American production lines for stopgap submarines. Australian Defence Minister Richard Marles spent the December-January period allaying these concerns with the support of US Representatives Joe Courtney (D-CT-02) and Mike Gallagher (R-WI-08) while in the US and UK, but the issue is certain to remain a hot topic for this year. Even closer to home, Rio Tinto’s loss of a Caesium-137 capsule in Western Australia captured the imaginations of people across the nation and the world. At once it seemed to represent the long-standing fear of nuclear research and its importance in fuelling the same regulatory efforts that helped track down the capsule. Perhaps more than a story of scientific discoveries, of neutrons, protons and physics, the story of nuclear science in 2022 and beyond is the story of people. Of those legislators and politicians, balancing visions of the future with messy political compromises. Of those scientists and researchers, balancing plans and facilities with the capacity of their institutions. Of us, the ordinary public, balancing long-held phobias with exciting aspirations. Will we meet the challenges that lie before us? Are we ready to have a nuanced discussion about how we want to use our nuclear knowledge? Can we balance the possibilities of the future with the fears of the past? Well... that’s entirely up to us. Andrew Lim is an Editor and Feature Writer with OmniSci Magazine and spent the summer as a Summer Research Scholar at the Australian National University’s Heavy Ion Accelerator Facility, working on studying nuclear structure through particle transfer reactions. Image Credits (in order): Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; Monash University; US Department of Defence; The White House Author's Note Between the submission of this article in late February and its publication in mid-March, a notable development took place, one that necessitated this additional note. On March 14, at an announcement held in San Diego, President Biden, Prime Minister Albanese and Prime Minister Sunak revealed plans for Australia to purchase three to five American Virginia-class submarines in the early 2030s. The Royal Navy and the Royal Australian Navy would then work out of their shipyards to develop and produce new SSN-AUKUS submarines (based off plans for successors to the British Astute-class models), coming into service in the late 2030s. If anything, this timeline accentuates the dramatic expansions required from Australia’s nuclear workforce, as presented in the original article. Meanwhile, the narrative that surrounded the announcement – one solely focussed on nuclear research’s military capabilities (and, at that, often conflating nuclear weaponry with nuclear power) – seems only to indicate the same throughlines of 2022 repeating themselves in the year to come…and nuanced and subtle discussion of nuclear research being left for another day. References CHIPS and Science Act, Pub L No 117-167, 136 Stat 1366 (2022). See ibid, div B tit I § 10102(d), 136 Stat 1415-6. See ibid, div B tit I § 10107, 136 Stat 1449-50, esp. sub-s (b)(4). See ibid, div B subtitle L § 10741-5, 136 Stat 1718-21. Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, Pub L No 117-169, 136 Stat 1818. The White House Office of the Press Secretary, Remarks by President Biden in State of the Union Address. March 2, 2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2022/03/02/remarks-by-president-biden-in-state-of-the-union-address/ See House Committee on Appropriations, Report to Accompany H.R. 8295, H.R. Rep No 117-403 (2022), esp. at 65, 104, 235, 238. Taylor A, Birmingham S and Hunt G, Safeguarding the future of critical medicine supply [Media Release]. September 30, 2021. https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/taylor/media-releases/safeguarding-future-critical-medicine-supply. “Precision medicine is the ‘future of medicine’: Greg Hunt”. The Australian. April 4, 2022. https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/politics/precision-medicine-is-the-future-of-medicine-greg-hunt/video/9ec9b0942bfb18757e3fbf4f3e95e0f4 Garvey, P. “Butler steps in to ease nuclear medicine crisis”. The Australian. October 27, 2022. Nicholson, B. “Defence Special Report: Cultivating a Nuclear Mindset”. The Australian. October 27, 2022. ANU Communications & Engagement, Building Australia’s AUKUS-ready nuclear workforce: Address by Professor Brian Schmidt AC. November 9, 2022. Mannix, L. “‘Cherish’ the power: Physicists issue call to arms over nuclear skills gap”. The Sydney Morning Herald. December 28, 2022. https://www.smh.com.au/national/cherish-the-power-physicists-issue-call-to-arms-over-nuclear-skills-gap-20221228-p5c92s.html The White House Office of the Press Secretary, Remarks by President Biden in State of the Union Address. February 7, 2023. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2023/02/07/remarks-by-president-biden-in-state-of-the-union-address-2/ Previous article Next article

< Back to Issue 9 Knot Theory and Its Applications. Why Knot? by Ryan Rud 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Saraf Ishmam Edited by Elijah McEvoy Knot theory is a theoretical study in mathematics, where your brain thinks of an imaginary knot, and manipulates it to your heart’s desire. Yes, the kind of knot you are probably thinking of now, it might be a shoelace, a knot in a piece of string or some utility knot. Good job, but it’s missing one detail: the knot needs to be tied at its ends. Think of this as a string with both ends tied together so that it can’t come undone when you play with it. Now you can pull at and twist this knot, as long as you don’t break it. Congratulations, you now understand the basics of knot theory. (1) So why should we care about a niche field of maths that you will probably never use in your everyday life? Well, the first answer to that is simply ‘for the love of the game’. For some people problem-solving is an endless endeavour that satisfies an urge to understand and be intellectually stimulated. But that’s not for everyone. So then we remember all the times when random elements of pure mathematics became essential when applied to seemingly unrelated topics. Such as how number theory became applied to information transmission, cryptography and computing. (2) How quaternions made for more efficient digital transformations in computer science. (3) Or how graph theory was used to strongly conjecture that any two people have 6 degrees of separation between each other. (4) Although we may not routinely ponder these discoveries, it is because of the works of pure mathematicians that we can admire certain facts that we could not prove otherwise or appreciate how they silently helped to make all the digital devices in your homes. But before we get into the applications, it is good to be familiar with some general terminology. That knot which you pictured earlier with its ends tied is called a standard knot. In 1867 Lord Kelvin thought of the revolutionary idea that what we know as elements - the ones made of protons and neutrons - are actually types of standard knots. (5) He wasn’t right, but it inspired his assistant Peter Guthrie Tait to begin the rigorous study of knots and we have been trying to find applications ever since. Here are the first knots in the greater sequence of the periodic table of knots (see cover image for more!): Figure 1. An ordered table of the first 15 prime knots. (6) There are knots made from one piece of string (prime knots) and knots made from multiple knots joined end-to-end (composite knots) (Fig.2b). There are also links, where two closed knots are combined without gluing the string (Fig.2a). Understanding any further implications of this terminology is not necessary here, but it may help to have a visual understanding of them for the next part. Figure 2. a) Showcasing types of mathematical links; unlink on the left, Hopf link in the centre and whitehead link on the left. b) Demonstrating how two prime knots are combined into a composite knot. c) Demonstrating chirality in trefoil knots, notice the overlapping pattern. Lastly, like many things in mathematics we need a way to systematically and efficiently describe how we manipulate the knots. Luckily, Kurt Reidemeister had the pleasure of providing us with a knot-manipulating moveset in the 1930s through rigorous proofs.These are the legal set of moves that can be done to a knot without changing the knot structure. If we were to cut the knot, twist or untwist the string and then reattach the ends, this is called a crossing switch and it changes the knot. Again, this is not an extensive course but it helps to know of the terminology and visualise it. Feel free to do more research into the details of these topics using the references below! Figure 3. A depiction of the Reidemeister moves. DNA and knot theory Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the most important and relevant knotting molecule. Each cell nucleus contains (on the millionth order) DNA that is regularly knotting, coiling and compressing to fit into this tight space. However, the best application of knot theory is to the closed end, circular DNA in bacteria. During DNA replication, the unwinding of DNA at one end creates immense torsional strain on the other side of the loop, which is enough supercoiling that prevents replication and leads to cell death.To counter this, bacteria utilise an enzyme known as type II topoisomerase which makes double-stranded cuts in the DNA, followed by a rearrangement of the tangle and reconnecting of the strands, a crossing switch! Without this adaptation, all cellular life would have evolved differently. If you gave this DNA to a mathematician and asked which position in the DNA would be best for this enzyme to cut with the intent of untangling, they could spend a lifetime performing Reidemeister moves and contemplating, never knowing where or how many cuts to make. In contrast to our world’s best mathematicians, topoisomerase is incredibly efficient in where it cuts. We have yet to understand what mechanism allows for such accurate cuts, but practical research into topoisomerase could potentially help knot theorists solve the immensely inscrutable question of the minimum number of crossing switches to simplify any knot. Furthermore, if an understanding of the mechanisms for topoisomerases in bacteria and humans is possible, then humanity can access a new form of control over DNA. It has been speculated that there are possible uses of topoisomerases to inhibit cancer growth, or as a revolutionary way to treat bacterial disease. While we do not have this intel right now, this is one of the ways knot theory could be integral to applied sciences and given time and research funding, it can prove itself useful. (7-8) Knots in chemistry So what other molecules can form knots? Chemists have been creating molecules which involve the basic knots and links since the 1960s (see Fig 4), when topological isomerism was discovered and characterised. Topological isomers are chemicals that are similar in many properties, but differ in spatial arrangement. We can think of it like chirality for knots (see Fig 2c). Chirality is the property of an object not being the same as its mirror image, like a right and left hand. Subsequently, these molecules were made through a technique called ‘templating’, where a metal ion or some template structure was used to produce a desired product, based on how the template interacts with the reactants. There is also another category of knot called a ravel (Fig 4h), where a knot has multiple strings connected at vertices. Altogether, the study of topological isomerism and templating techniques have been advanced by the experimental desire to produce these beautiful molecules. This then indirectly contributes to the production of new molecules and drugs that can go on to have real world impacts. (9) Figure 4. a) The first molecular trefoil knot produced in 1989. c) The first molecule pentafoil knot produced in 2011. d) First molecular Borromean rings, a type of link produced in 2004. f) The first molecule solomon link produced in 2013. h) The first molecular ravel produced in 2011. (9) The recent breakthrough in knot theory I admit, progress in knot theory is slow and perhaps you did not find the scientific revelation of knot theory here that you were hoping for. But that does not mean that current research is ineffective. As recent as June of this year, there was a groundbreaking proof. Think back to the prime and composite knots (scroll up if you have to). Prime knots have an unknotting number, which is the number of crossing changes needed to simplify it to the unknot, similar to what the topoisomerase does. If we merge two prime knots into a composite knot, it can be easily seen that it takes as many crossing switches to simplify the composite, as it does the crossing switches for the sum of the primes. In other words, to untangle a composite knot, you cut and reglue it as many times as the prime knots that make it up. Now, the breakthrough was a proof that it is possible to untangle some composite knots through less crossing switches than the sum of its prime knots. This may seem bleak, but it disproves a widely believed conjecture and now theorists are one step closer to solving the question of the minimum number of crossing switches needed to simplify a knot. (10) Conclusion I will end this with a quote from Dr Arunima Ray, a mathematician that specialises in knot theory and low-dimensional topology at the University of Melbourne, and a dear professor of mine. Hopefully this is just more proof (pun intended) that the work us mathematicians do is tangible: “I had never imagined that mathematics could be used to describe something so abstract as knot theory, but to me the appeal was its tangibility. No matter who you are, there really is something in mathematics for you.” References Pencovitch M. What’s not to love? [Internet] Mathematics Today . 2021. Available from: https://ima.org.uk/17434/whats-knot-to-love/ Koblitz N. A course in number theory and cryptography . 2nd ed. Springer Science & Business Media; 1994. Jeremiah. Understanding quaternions. 3D Game Engine Programming [Internet]. June 25, 2012. Available from: https://www.3dgep.com/understanding-quaternions/ Zhang L, Tu W. Six degrees of separation in online society [Internet]. Research Gate. 2009. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255614427_Six_Degrees_of_Separation_in_Online_Society Wilson RM. Holograms tie optical vortices in knots. Physics Today. 2010. https://doi.org/ 10.1063/1.3366639 Li M, Wang T, Kau A, George W, Petrenko A. Knots. Brilliant. 2025 [Internet]. Available from: https://brilliant.org/wiki/knots/ Catherine. All tangled up: an introduction to knot theory [Internet]. Gleammath. April 28, 2021. Available from: https://www.gleammath.com/post/all-tangled-up-an-introduction-to-knot-theory Skjeltorp AT, Clausen S, Helgesen G, Pieranski P. Knots and applications to biology, chemistry and physics. In: Riste T, Sherrington D, editors. Physics of Biomaterials: Fluctuations, Selfassembly and Evolution. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 1996. p.187–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1722-4_8 Horner KE, Miller MA, Steed JW, Sutcliffe PM. Knot theory in modern chemistry [Internet]. Chemical Society Reviews. 2016;45(23). Available from: https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1394834 Brittenham M, Hermiller S. Unknotting number is not additive under connected sum [Internet]. Arxiv . 2025. Available from: https://arxiv.org/html/2506.24088v1 Previous article Next article Entwined back to