Search Results

< Back to Issue 6 A Frozen Odyssey: Shackleton’s Trans-Antarctic Expedition by Ethan Bisogni 28 May 2024 Edited by Rita Fortune Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration South of the 66th parallel lies a continent desolate and cruel, where the experiences of those who dared to challenge it are preserved in its ice. Antarctica was deemed Earth’s final frontier by 19th-century explorers, and at the cusp of the 20th century, the ‘Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration’ was underway (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. a). Those who answered the call of the wild, to face the polar elements, would be remembered as heroes. Among the pantheon of Antarctic explorers, none are more celebrated than Sir Ernest Shackleton. An Irishman whose name became synonymous with adventure and peril, Shackleton emerged at the forefront of Britain’s polar conquests. During his Nimrod expedition to reach the magnetic South Pole, Shackleton and his crew found themselves within 100 miles of their goal—only to be thwarted by their human needs (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. b). His ambition outmatched the capabilities of those he commanded, so they withdrew for want of survival. Despite the supposed failure of the two-year expedition, Shackleton’s romanticism of exploration, leadership, and unwavering optimism earned him a knighthood in 1909 (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. b). In the years following, as other explorers performed increasingly remarkable polar feats, Shackleton was left in limbo. It was during this time that an impossibly ambitious expedition was put forward to him. The plan was as follows: a crew would sail a wooden barquentine, the Endurance, into the Weddell Sea, and land on the Antarctic coast. There, the men would split into groups, and Shackleton would pursue a daring transcontinental journey across Antarctica (Smith, 2021). Despite the questionable feasibility of this plan, a benefactor named James Caird sought to help fund the expedition (Smith, 2021). Thus, these plans were translated into reality, and with a finalised crew of 27, the Endurance was set to sail under the helm of New Zealand captain Frank Worsley. On August 1st, 1914, the Endurance departed Plymouth (PBS, 2002). Explorers of the Antarctic, from left: Ronald Amundsen, Sir Ernest Shackleton, Robert Peary (Antarctica 21, 2017) The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Into the Weddell Sea, December 5th, 1914 After their momentary recess in South Georgia, and the recent pickup of a stowaway, the Grytviken whaling station remained the crew's last semblance of civilisation (PBS, 2002). Shackleton was well aware of the challenges that loomed ahead—notorious for its hostility, the Weddell Sea was Antarctica’s first line of defence (Shackleton, 1919). In the coming days, the Endurance encountered pack ice, severely slowing its progress. A nightmarish phenomenon for any explorer, pack ice was an abundant drift of sea ice no longer connected to land. While plentiful, navigating it was not impossible—it only required patience, caution, and an intuitive hint of wisdom. But even with worsening conditions, Shackleton proceeded into unclear waters (Shackleton, 1919). The Endurance in the Weddell Sea (Hurley, 1914) Icebound, January 18th, 1915 The Endurance was again ensnared in ice, and this time the ship would not budge. Plagued by regret in pushing ahead, but desperate to break free, Shackleton ordered his men to cease routine. Once again, his ambition outpaced his capabilities, but Shackleton was also a man of determination. They would wait until an opening cleared (Shackleton, 1919). The ship began to drift northward with the ice, but as months passed, so too did any hope of landing. Time was running out, and with winter approaching, the Endurance would soon be engulfed by the long polar night (PBS, 2002). For this expedition to succeed, the crew needed to remain optimistic. A brotherhood formed on the ice, with theatre plays and celebrations to ease their dire worries. The eerie creak of the hull did not deter them from trekking the very ice that imprisoned them. The ship’s Australian photographer, Frank Hurley, captured these moments of perseverance on photographic plates, including the hauntingly beautiful Endurance beset amongst the snow (Shackleton, 1919). The Endurance in the night (Hurley, 1915) Abandon Ship, October 27th, 1915 True to its name, the Endurance weathered the dark winter months. But despite the comfort of a newly rising sun, disaster did not fade with the darkness. A catastrophic ice shift had violently imploded the ship’s hull, and with its fate sealed, the Endurance would not hold. Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship (Shackleton, 1919). Any hope of the expedition continuing was now lost alongside the Endurance , which was silently withering on the ice. Though this was not Shackleton’s first time in Antarctica, nor was it his first disastrous expedition. Stations of emergency supplies established by himself and other explorers were scattered across the islands of the Weddell Sea, each offering glimmers of hope. However, at over 500 kilometres away, they all required a potentially fatal journey (Shackleton, 1919). Frank Wild overlooking the wreck of the Endurance (Hurley, 1915) Ocean Camp, November 1st, 1915 A plan was conjured—they would march across the unforgiving ice, bringing themselves to one of the few sanctuaries along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns of risk from Captain Worsley fell on deaf ears; undeterred, Shackleton knew waiting was futile (Worsley, 1931). Leading up, a difficult decision was made to conserve the crew’s rations. Mrs. Chippy, the beloved ship cat of carpenter Harry McNish, was to be killed amongst the other animals (Canterbury Museum, 2018). Although believing it necessary, Shackleton’s remorseful orders to cull the animals aboard had cast a shadow over his leadership (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). The march soon commenced, but horrendous conditions had led the men into a frozen labyrinth. After a pace of only a kilometre a day, the march was abandoned. The crew instead erected ‘Ocean Camp’, and were to wait for the ice to clear a path for their lifeboats (PBS, 2002). Weeks in, the crew's evening was interrupted by the ghostly wailing of the Endurance wreck . Beckoning in the distance, the men gathered to watch its final breaths. On November 21st, the ice finally caved in, and the Endurance was swallowed into the forsaken depths of the Weddell Sea (Worsley, 1931). Ocean Camp (Hurley, 1915) The Rebellion on the Ice, December 27th, 1915 With the crew’s last tether to the world severed, a depression had settled over the camp. Now dragging their lifeboats to open water, a quiet but persistent discontent was beginning to grow. Most of the crew still admired Shackleton as their resolute leader, but some were beginning to lose faith. A frustrated and grieving McNish made his stand, arguing that the loss of the Endurance had nullified Shackleton's command. Shackleton, furious but sympathetic, was able to successfully de-escalate the situation (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). The mutiny was short-lived, but McNish was now under Shackleton's watchful eye. He knew that he would have to inspire hope, and that a rift in the crew would only prompt death. Dragging the lifeboats (Hurley, 1915) Elephant Island, April 14th, 1916 With three lifeboats in possession, a proposal to island-hop was presented. McNish had spent his time reinforcing the boats for open waters, and after careful deliberation, a destination was chosen. Elephant Island was a barren, windswept landscape—a false sanctuary harbouring an inhospitable environment. Landing there was not Shackleton’s first choice, but a fast approaching winter left no alternative (Shackleton, 1919). With Elephant Island looming over the horizon, the boats set forth. Battling the arduous sea, one of the lifeboats, the Dudley Docker , was torn away from the rest during an unprecedented storm. Fading into the vast darkness, the men aboard were presumed dead. No amount of enthusiasm from Shackleton could lift the crew's spirits, who were now delirious and grief stricken (Fiennes, 2022). The following day, a landing was imminent. Nearing the shore, a boat was noticed soaring in the distance. The Dudley Docker pierced through the waves—the crew still alive and following in hot pursuit. Ecstatic and revived with hope, landfall was made. A major milestone had been reached; the crew were now unified and ashore for the first time since South Georgia (Fiennes, 2022). Unfortunately, Elephant Island’s taunting winds carried no whispers of hope. The silence was apparent: this island would be their grave unless contact was made with civilisation. A party must be formed, one that would take the risk and sail into the heavy seas of the Southern Ocean (Shackleton, 1919). The shores of Elephant Island (Hurley, 1916) The Voyage of the James Caird, April 24th, 1916 Shackleton selected a route to a South Georgia whaling station neighbouring the one they had departed in 1914—a harrowing 1500 kilometres across notoriously restless seas. In one of their modified lifeboats, they were to utilise the prevailing westerlies to attempt an impossible sailing feat (Pierson, n.d.). Six men were selected to commander the James Caird : Shackleton, Worsley, McNish, Crean, Vincent, and McCarthy. As the James Caird set sail, a vast ocean of uncertainty lay between Elephant Island and South Georgia (Pierson, n.d.). The voyage was tortuous, with the men severely ill-prepared. From storm-fed waves to frigid winds, the James Caird and those aboard were unlikely to survive the journey. At each turn, however, the determined men managed to stay afloat and push ahead. 17 days passed before the dominant mountains of South Georgia came into view (PBS, 2002). Shackleton, fearing his men would not survive another day at sea, hastened a plan to land on the rocky western shores (Pierson, n.d.). The six men found themselves on the wrong end of the island to the station, and James Caird was in no state to navigate the coast. The capable individuals would have to perform the first trans-island crossing of South Georgia—a far cry from their original ambitions, but daring nonetheless. With only Shackleton, Worsley, and Crean able to attempt the task ahead, McNish, Vincent, and McCarthy were left to establish ‘Peggotty Camp’ in the landing cove (Pierson, n.d.). Waving goodbye to the James Caird (Hurley, 1916) The Crossing of South Georgia, May 10th, 1916 The three men began their journey northward towards the Stromness whaling station. Encountering menacing snow-capped peaks, the men were so close to potential rescue only to be divided by insurmountable odds. Needing to race the approaching night down a 3000-foot mountainside, a makeshift sled was constructed from their little equipment. Rocketing downhill, a rare moment of joy and exhilaration accompanied the men along their daredevilish tactics (Antarctica Heritage Trust, 2015). Exhausted and verging on collapse, the men were now nearing the outskirts of their destination. A whistle in the air had lured them closer, and on May 20th, 1916, contact was finally made. The men were tended to by the distraught station managers, and a rescue party was sent the following day to those abandoned at ‘Peggotty Camp’ (Pierson, n.d.). After multiple attempts to obtain a suitable vessel, the 22 remaining souls holding steadfast on Elephant Island were finally rescued by the Yelcho on August 30th, 1916. Hope was not lost amongst them, as even in his absence their belief in Shackleton kept their spirits alive. Bringing their ordeal to a close, and without a man’s life lost, the crew’s troubles were left behind in the frozen Antarctic (Shackleton, 1919). The Yelcho arrives to rescue the crew (Hurley, 1916) Legacy Published in 1919, ‘South’, Shackleton’s autobiographical recount of the expedition, brought these remarkable stories into the limelight. However, records stricken from the novel hide some concerning truths. While omitting the incident regarding McNish’s mutiny, it was clear Shackleton resented him for introducing doubt during their time of turmoil. Despite his redemption during their voyage to South Georgia, Shackleton recommended McNish not be awarded the Polar medal—a decision still considered mistakenly harsh (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). But despite his flaws and misjudgments, Shackleton was undoubtedly the optimistic and courageous leader you would seek in times of crisis. In 1922, aboard his final expedition to circumnavigate Antarctica, Shackleton suffered a fatal heart attack - and was buried in South Georgia. Regarded as a defining moment, his death signalled the end of the ‘Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration’ (Royal Museums Greenwich., n.d. b). Exactly one century following, the Endurance was found preserved at the bottom of the Weddell Sea. Its mast still bearing its inscription, the ship remains an enduring remnant of a heroic past. This inspiring tale of survival continues to live on, as one of the greatest stories of human perseverance in the face of the elements. The crew of the Endurance (Hurley, 1915) References Antarctica 21. (2017). Famous Antarctic Explorers: Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton. Antarctica 21 . https://www.antarctica21.com/journal/famous-antarctic-explorers-sir-ernest-henry-shackleton/ Antarctica Heritage Trust (2015). Crossing South Georgia. Antarctic Heritage Trust. https://nzaht.org/encourage/inspiring-explorers/crossing-south-georgia/ Canterbury Museum (2018), Dogs in Antarctica: Tales from the Pack. Canterbury Museum https://antarcticdogs.canterburymuseum.com/themes/hardships Fiennes, R (2022). Remembering a Little-Known Chapter in the Famed Endurance Expedition to Antarctica. Atlas Obscura, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/shackleton-endurance-elephant-island Hurley, F. (1914-1916). Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Photographic Plates. [Photographs]. National Library of Australia. https://www.nla.gov.au/collections/what-we-collect/pictures/explore-pictures-collection-through-articles-and-essays/frank PBS (2002). Shackleton’s Voyage of Endurance. PBS Nova. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/shackleton/1914/timeline.html Pierson, G (n.d.), Excerpt: The Voyage of the James Caird by Enerest Shackleton. American Museum of Natural History. https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/antarctica/exploration/the-voyage-of-the-james-caird Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d. a). History of Antarctic explorers. Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/history-antarctic-explorers Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d. b). Sir Ernest Shackleton. Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/sir-ernest-shackleton Scott Polar Research Institute (n.d.). McNish, Carpenter. University of Cambridge, Scott Polar Research Institute. https://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/museum/shackleton/biographies/McNish,_Henry/ Shackelton, E (1919). South: The Endurance Expedition. Heinemann Publishing House Smith, M (2021). Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Shackleton. https://shackleton.com/en-au/blogs/articles/shackleton-imperial-trans-antarctic-expedition Worsley, F (1931). Endurance: An Epic of Polar Adventure. W. W. Norton & Co Previous article Next article Elemental back to

OmniSci Magazine is the University of Melbourne's science magazine, written by students. Read our recent issues and view the magnificent illustrations! Issue 10: Fact & Fiction Cover Art: Anabelle Dewi Saraswati READ NOW Welcome to OmniSci Magazine OmniSci Magazine is a student-led science magazine and social club at UniMelb. We are a group of students passionate about science communication and a platform for students to share their creativity. Read More More from OmniSci Magazine Previous Issues Illustration by Anabelle Dewi Saraswati READ ISSUE 9 National Science Week 'SCIENCE IS EVERYWHERE' PHOTO/ART COMPETITION VIEW SUBMISSIONS

Ever wondered what it's like to contribute to OmniSci? We spoke to Tanya Kovacevic about her experience, from starting writing during lockdown to what's in the words for Issue 4: Mirage! Tanya is currently in her third year of the Bachelor of Biomedicine and studying a concurrent diploma in Italian. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to four articles as an editor. Mee t OmniSci Editor Tany a Kovacevic Tanya is an editor at OmniSci, currently in her third year of the Bachelor of Biomedicine and studying a concurrent diploma in Italian. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to four articles as an editor. interviewed by Caitlin Kane What are you studying? I am studying a Bachelor of Biomedicine, currently in third year, and a Diploma in Italian. I’m majoring in human structure and function, which looks at how the body works: the muscles, the bones, the visceral organs, everything. I’m hoping to get a research subject placement at the Florey Institute because I have a very big passion for neurology. I feel like it will be fun to get exposure to both what’s happening behind the scenes through research and be able to apply it in the future as well. I want to hopefully go into medicine and become a GP with a focus on neurology. What first got you interested in science? My primary school wanted to start introducing science subjects and I was chosen as one of the students to give it a shot. I found that I really enjoyed it. Especially when the skeleton was brought out of the closet–all dusty and stuff–and we finally started to use it. Then compulsory science subjects at high school, I continued to find that interesting. I thought, I guess I’ll stick with this. What is your role at OmniSci? I started off writing a piece during lockdown and I wrote my first piece about lockdown fatigue. I remember speaking to my psychologist about it because I was experiencing it. When I heard of it, I thought this actually explains a lot so I wanted to share that with other people. I applied for the editing role as well, so that’s what I’ve been doing these last three years. I quite enjoy helping people flesh out their ideas. I find that I’m quite an analytical and meticulous person, so I will always look for the little things that could go wrong and always like to correct them. I thought it was a pretty good fit! What would you say to someone else who was thinking about getting involved at OmniSci? It’s really open with what you can do. You can communicate with so many different people. Getting involved is a good way of exploring your own interests and putting your skills to the test. It’s nice having something on the side that takes your mind off study but is also related to things that you enjoy. It's a good pastime but also something that gives you professional experience. Kills two birds with one stone. What is your favourite thing about contributing at OmniSci so far? I like seeing when it gets printed and everything has been put together, because you really see the contribution of everyone, and it all falls into place. While you're doing it, it’s sort of “I’ve got to focus on this aspect,” but then it’s nice seeing how your feedback has been included and how people have really improved in their writing and been able to use the skills of others. It’s a very collaborative thing that comes together. It’s a good product, especially with all the cool illustrations. I love looking at art–not very good at it, but I love looking at it. It’s exciting to see something that I was interested in while writing or editing come to life in a physical representation, an artistic interpretation. Can you give us a sneak peek or pitch of what you're working on this issue? With Mirage it’s very open ended. Placebo effect is something that everyone talks about, but there are hidden aspects that we don’t quite think about. It’s interesting looking at a bit of the biology behind it, particularly between the different sexes. That’s one thing to look out for! What do you like doing in your spare time (when you're not contributing at OmniSci)? Reading all sorts of stuff, watching TV shows and movies–I’m a bit of a film fanatic as well. Going outside and playing tennis or walking my dog. I love spending time with my dog. My dog is my life so he takes up a bit of my time. Do you have any media recommendations? One of my favourite international films is called ‘I cento passi’ or ‘One Hundred Steps’. It’s an Italian movie about the mafia and the man it’s based on is very courageous. I think it’s something we all need to see to remind us that we do have a voice even in such horrible, dark moments. I think that’s definitely something that people can look into! It’s on Youtube with subtitles [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhc9S8txE9c]. Which chemical element would you name your firstborn child (or pet) after? That’s a very um… specific question! Curium is one, so Marie Curie. Fantastic woman, pioneering woman, who was definitely ahead of her time. Or Thorium, because Thor! Read Tanya's articles Sick of lockdown? Let science explain why. Law and Order: Medically Supervised Injecting Centres Space exploration in Antarctica Believing in aliens... A science? Behind the Mask From Fusion to Submarines: A Nuclear Year

< Back to Issue 5 Why Do We Gossip? Lily McCann 24 October 2023 Edited by Celina Kumala Illustrated by Rachel Ko Have you ever heard of ‘Scold’s bridle’? A metal restraint, fitted with a gag, that was strapped about the face as a medieval punishment for excessive chatter; gossip, it seems, was not received too fondly in the Middle Ages. While the bridle may have gone out of fashion long ago, today the word gossip still carries negative connotations. The Oxford Dictionary, for instance, defines gossip as “informal talk or stories about other people’s private lives, that may be unkind or not true” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, 2023). Entries in the Urban Dictionary use yet stronger terms, going so far as to describe gossip as the “garbage of stupid silly ignorant people” (Lorenzo, 2006). Is this too harsh? Cruz et al. (2021) propose a much more neutral definition in their analysis of frameworks to study gossip, concluding that gossip is “a sender communicating to a receiver about a target who is absent or unaware of the content”. Whether the gossip conveys positive or negative content — otherwise known as its valence — is not a requirement of the definition itself. Gossip, then, is not always “unkind” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, 2023) or “garbage” (Lorenzo, 2006). In fact, with a bit of further reading, we can see that this “informal talk” has played an important part in our evolution and even serves positive purposes in society. In the first sense, gossip is an important facilitator of safety. It allows dangerous situations to be identified: spreading the knowledge that a certain individual is prone to violence, for instance, ensures the rest of a community takes care of their own safety with regards to that individual. On a different note, passing about the fact that another individual is skilled in certain aspects of resource procurement allows wider access to these resources. It is easy to see in these examples how gossip could give a selective advantage in the survival of societies. But the influence of gossip goes further than this. It has been shown that gossip in fact encourages cooperation and generosity (Wu et al., 2015). How? The crucial mediator is reputation (Nowak, 2006). Reputation is incredibly important - see Taylor Swift’s 2017 album for more. A poor reputation leads to ostracisation, and for an individual in prehistoric societies, this could be fatal. Cultivating a good reputation among peers thousands of years ago, as today, improves the chances of success in life by increasing access to resources and the willingness of others to help you. Positive gossip can facilitate all this. So, how do we foster positive gossip? What will encourage someone to put in a good word for us? The most effective approach is to act in a way that benefits that individual. It predisposes them to spread the word of our generosity, helping to build a reputation for goodness that will in turn have positive outcomes for ourselves. Thus, it’s easy to see how behaviours that foster good gossip are incentivised in our everyday lives. This propensity to spread the knowledge of how certain individuals interact with others has been incredibly impactful in the development of human societies. The fact that our species can flourish and sustain itself in such immense populations requires a high level of cooperation - which enables us to share resources and productivity - even with people we do not know. Otherwise known as indirect reciprocity, this ability to work with strangers is enabled by reputation (Nowak, 2006). How else do we know that it is safe to interact with a stranger, other than through the means of gossip, which informs us of their reliability and trustworthiness? But what about when gossip is incorrect? The Oxford definition hints at the possibility that information spread through gossip “may be…not true”. Can untrue gossip hinder our progress, by limiting interactions with individuals who may have the potential to help us, or promoting those interactions that would better have been avoided? And if gossip can be incorrect, does that not render reputation meaningless? What is the incentive to be good, if gossip could label you as a bad egg, regardless (Nieper et al., 2022)? Incorrectly negative gossip can be extremely impactful for the subject of that gossip. Studies have shown that it decreases productivity and prosocial behaviour - not to mention burdening victims with the psychological effects of ostracisation, injustice and loneliness (Kong, 2018; Martinescu et al., 2021). Through gossip, we can exert immense power over other beings. It is understandable, then, that we fear gossip, and try to discount it by painting it as “garbage” (Lorenzo, 2006), “unkind” or “not true” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, 2023). And yet, whilst negative gossip can be a detriment, positive gossip can yield great benefits, reinforcing prosocial behaviour, fostering cooperation and promoting generosity. So, rather than fearing gossip, perhaps we ought to acknowledge its benefits and harness it for good. Perhaps it's worth considering how we can each use gossip to exert a bit of good upon our world. References Dores Cruz, T. D., Nieper, A. S., Testori, M., Martinescu, E., & Beersma, B. (2021). An Integrative Definition and Framework to Study Gossip. Group & Organization Management, 46(2), 252-285. http://doi.org/10.1177/1059601121992887 Kong, M. (2018). Effect of Perceived Negative Workplace Gossip on Employees’ Behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology , 9(2728). http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01112 Lorenzo, A. (2006). Gossip . Urban Dictionary. Accessed October 10, 2023. https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=gossip Martinescu, E., Jansen, W., & Beersma, B. (2021). Negative Gossip Decreases Targets’ Organizational Citizenship Behavior by Decreasing Social Inclusion: A Multi-Method Approach. Group and Organization Management, 46(3), 463-497. http://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120986876 Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries. (2023). Gossip - definition . Accessed October 10, 2023. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/american_english/gossip_1#:~:text=gossip-,noun,all%20the%20gossip%20you%20hear . Nieper, A. S., Beersma, B., Dijkstra, M. T. M., & van Kleef, G. A. (2022). When and why does gossip increase prosocial behavior? Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 315-320. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.10.009 Nowak, M. A. (2006). Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation . Science, 314(5805), 1560-1563. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133755 Wu, J., Balliet, D., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2015). When does gossip promote generosity? Indirect reciprocity under the shadow of the future. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(8), 923-930. http://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615595272 Wicked back to

< Back to Issue 6 A Brief History of the Elements: Finding a Seat at the Periodic Table by Xenophon Papas 28 May 2024 Edited by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo Illustrated by Rachel Ko What are we made of and where did it all come from? Such questions have pervaded the minds of scientific thinkers since ancient times and have entered all fields of enquiry, from the physical to the philosophical. Our best scientific theory today asserts that we’re made of atoms, and these atoms come in different shapes and sizes. Fundamentally, they can be described by the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) they contain (Jefferson Lab, 2012). Neatly arranged in a grid, these different elements form the periodic table we know and love today; but it was not always this way. The story of how the periodic table of elements came to be harks back to Ancient Greece and winds its way through the enlightenment into the 20th century. It is an unfinished story of which we are at the frontier of today: in search of dark matter and the ultimate answer to what the universe is made of. We may never know for sure exactly what everything in existence consists of, but it’s a pursuit our earliest ancestors would be proud to see us follow. Thales was first in the ancient Greek-speaking world to postulate about the origins of all material things. He theorised that all matter in the universe was made up of just one type of substance – water – and any other forms of solids, liquids and gases were just derivatives thereof. This idea was not initially opposed, given Thales was one of the earliest of the Ancient Greeks to pursue such questions of a scientific nature. Afterall, he’s remembered today as the “Father of Science” in the Western world. As Thales was from Miletus, a city on the coast of the Ionian Sea in modern day Türkiye and part of Magna Graecia in the 6th cent BC, it is not hard to imagine that water was a crucial aspect in trade, agriculture, and daily life at the time. However, this seemed to oversimplify the matter to some of his contemporaries. Empedocles, who was considered more a magician than a philosopher, revised this mono-elemental theorisation in the 5th Century BC. He proposed four basic substances from which all others were made (Mee, 2020). We know them today famously as the four classical elements: Earth, Air, Water and Fire. This asserted a fundamental principle of “fourness”, encompassing the cardinal directions in the Western world during this time. Interestingly, concurrent to this other traditions such as those in China acknowledged five elements and compass points instead. A generation later to Empedocles’ work, Plato embraced his “fourish” formulation. Being heavily influenced by mathematics as the medium through which we make reason of the natural world, Plato related each of these elements to a mathematical object: a convex, regular polyhedron in three-dimensional Euclidean space, otherwise known as a Platonic solid. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, and fire with the tetrahedron. Lastly, the most complicated solid, the dodecahedron – itself made up of composite regular polygons – was associated with the makeup of the constellations and the Heavens themselves, their workings said to be unfathomable by human minds (Ball, 2004). His student, Aristotle, ran with this idea and devised a clever way to break up the elements based on their "qualities”, akin to a first periodic table. These binary roles were hot and cold, wet and dry, with an element containing just two of these qualities each. According to Aristotle, each of these elements could be converted to the other by inverting one of their qualities, seemingly bringing about an early form of alchemy. To these four elements, he also appended a fifth - aether or “pure air” - to fill the expanses of the heavens, which also became associated with the fifth Platonic solid. In the Western World, Aristotle’s word was taken as doctrine for a very long time owing greatly to the fall of Rome and the cultural instability thereafter. Where Europe plummeted into the Dark Ages with a reverence for the scholars of antiquity, scientific and literary endeavour flourished in the Middle East – the word alchemy itself having etymologically Arabic roots. It was not until the late 17th century that the likes of Galileo, Newton, and Descartes revived Western scientific pursuit, and sought to understand how the natural world arranged itself. In the 18th century, new discoveries were being made on the frontiers of science in major cities throughout Europe. In 1772, in Paris, Antoine Lavoisier began work on combustion of materials like phosphorus and sulphur. Lavoisier concluded that if something decomposes into simpler substances, then it is not an element. For example, while water can be turned into a gas when passed over hot iron and is therefore not an element, oxygen and hydrogen are indeed elemental. English chemist John Dalton took after Lavoisier and in 1808 began to arrange elements spatially into a chart, accounting for their various properties. In Strasbourg 1827, Wolfgang Döbereiner recognised that groups of threes arose from the list of elements which behaved similarly, known as “Döbereiner's triads" (Free Animated Education, 2023). John Newlands in 1866 put forward the “Law of Octaves”. Elements with similar properties ended up at regular intervals, dividing the elements into seven groups of eight – hence octaves. However, this method of dividing up the elements broke down in some special cases. Now turning to St. Petersburg, Russia, in February of 1869. Dmitri Mendeleev sits at his desk, with a mess of cards covering the surface of his working space. The professor of chemistry rearranges these elemental cards like a jigsaw puzzle, arranging and rearranging them to align them in accordance with their properties. Supposedly after coming to him in a dream, a pattern emerged. Mendeleev saw the ability for the simple tabulation of the elements based on their atomic number and hence their common properties. This newfound tool, based on Lavoisier’s work a century prior, allowed for the prediction of properties of elements which had not even been discovered yet. Elements which Mendeleev believed to exist, even though they presented as empty gaps in the grid structure of the periodic table. Within just twenty years, Mendeleev’s prediction of the existence of such elements like gallium, scandium, and germanium had been validated with experimental fact. All of this was predicted without knowledge of the true reason for similarities of elemental properties – the electron shell arrangement at a subatomic level. Mendeleev had totally changed the way chemists viewed their discipline and has been immortalised for perhaps the greatest breakthrough work in the history of chemistry (Rouvray, 2019). Today we recognise that all the elements in the universe have origins in the high-pressure hearts of stars. Like a hot furnace, they churn out heavier and heavier elements under their immense internal pressures. Once this life cycle comes to an end, the star erupts into a fiery supernova, releasing even more of the heavier elements we see further down the periodic table. In the last 75 years, scientists have added an additional 24 elements to the periodic table, some of which are so difficult to produce that their half-lives last only a few fractions of a millisecond before decaying away to nothing (Charley, 2012). This begs the question; how do we find new elements? Elements can be created via either fission, splitting apart a heavier atom, or fusion, binding two bodies of atoms together. The heavier an element, that is, the more protons and neutrons in its nucleus, the more unstable it is. Hence it is with great difficulty that scientists attempt to churn out new elements from large particle accelerators, by colliding and combining elements into new ones (Chheda, 2023). The story of physical matter is just one aspect in the search for what “everything” is made of. Dark matter and dark energy – so named because they do not interact with light – have been found to drive the expansion of the universe and the rotation speeds of galaxies. We know remarkably little about these substances, given that they make up around 95% of the total mass of the universe! Without a doubt, we have only just begun the journey to find out what makes up the universe around us. References Chheda, R. (2023, March 31). Can we add new elements to the periodic table? Science ABC. https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/can-we-add-new-elements-to-the-periodic-table.html Charley, S. (2012). How to make an element. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/insidenova/2012/01/how-to-make-an-element.html Free Animated Education. (2023, February 10). Perfecting the periodic table [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7tbMGKGgCRA&ab_channel=FreeAnimatedEducation Jefferson Lab. (2012, November 20). The origin of the elements [Video]. YouTube. Ball, P. (2004). The elements: A very short introduction . Oxford University Press. Mee, N. (2020). Earth, air, fire, and water. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 16–23). https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851950.003.0003 Rouvray, D. (2019). Dmitri Mendeleev. New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/people/dmitri-mendeleev Previous article Next article Elemental back to

< Back to Issue 9 Axolotl: The Little God of the Lake by Danny He 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Saraf Ishman Edited by Ciara Dahl Creation “When the fifth sun was created, it did not move. The god of the wind carved a destructive path through the realm, slaying all other gods to induce the Sun into movement. Xolotl, guide for the dead, escaped his sacrifice by transforming into an invulnerable salamander. Eventually, even he was captured. Upon his sacrifice, the Sun began its course. Thus began the time of man.” - Author’s creative interpretation of Aztec mythology. The otherworldly biology of the axolotl ( Ambystoma mexicanum) attracted fascination among the Aztecs, who named it after the god of fire and lightning (1). They believed the shapeshifting god Xolotl took many forms, from a chimera depicted as a dog-headed man, to a skeleton, to a deformed monster with reversed feet (1). He was a renowned shapeshifter who would guide the dead on their journey to the afterlife (1). Centuries on, the axolotl would transform from a feared deity to a beloved icon and subject of scientific marvel. Fascination “Auguste Dumeril lounged by the lake. The humidity of Lake Xochimilco was beginning to take its toll. He had recently been informed of a marvellous reptile, one that resided exclusively in the canals of ancient Aztec, capable of regrowing limbs and organs including its brain. He wondered of the scientific possibilities of studying such a creature. A self-regenerating invertebrate could fascinate the scientific community and make wonderful contributions to medicine. This creature is to be taken back home to Paris” - Imaging a day with French Zoologist August Dumeril. The axolotl exhibits many biological peculiarities. Cousin of the tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum) , it has evolved over millions of years to take advantage of the bountiful resources of the Mexican basins (2). It remains in its juvenile, tadpole-like form throughout its adulthood, retaining its gills and breathing through its skin (2). The animal’s near perfect regeneration and its potential application for medical research fascinated scientists. French zoologist Auguste Dumeril was the first to conduct research on the axolotl after discovering it during his expedition to Mexico (3). Decades later, proteins were discovered which enabled the miraculous processes of complete, scar-free regeneration of an injured axolotl (4). Scientists continue to research methods in which the axolotl’s regeneration can facilitate trauma care and cancer research (4, 5). Conservation “Pedro set his spade down, straw hat clutched close to his chest. His eyes fixated on the water before him. Just below the surface, he had thought something had moved along the river bank. It had been many years since he had last seen an axolotl. The Méndez Rosas had been working as Chinamperos for generations. The axolotl had been a welcome sight for his forefathers, now it is a sign of hope for Lake Xochilmilco.” - an interview with Pedro, a 7th generation Chinamperos (7). Chinampas are large man-made farming islands created by the Aztecs (6). The capital city was built upon an island on a vast lake using a series of complex canals to prevent their city from flooding (6). Chinamperos use the lake's nutrient-rich soil to grow crops and create a self-sustaining system resilient to pests and disease (6). Productive chinampas ensure greater food security for Mexico City. A perfect symbiosis between water and land, a healthy chinampa cannot be without a healthy body of water (6). As chinampas grow they become refuge for wildlife such as the axolotl (6). As axolotls breathe through their skin, their presence indicates excellent water quality and hence a healthy chinampa (6). However, this once thriving ecosystem is now under threat from urbanisation. Drainage of the lake has resulted in the range of chinampas being limited to Lake Xochilmilco (6). Pollution and climate change has altered the landscape, while expansion of the city has resulted in the loss of precious wetlands (6). These changes have driven axolotls to critical endangerment. A once venerated and sacred creature has been neglected and buried by the relentless incursion of human civilisation (6). It is now a race against time to save the wild axolotls as few remain in Lake Xochilmilco (2). As urbanisation continues to bear down upon the chinampas, calls have been made to protect these dwindling areas of refuge (2). The fate of the axolotl is yet to be determined, but it is certain that the loss of another species will continue to set a dangerous precedent for the conservation of our ecosystems. Aztec mythology describes the god represented by the axolotl as the caretaker of his underworld kingdom and a guide for lost souls (1). Perhaps it is now important for us to take care of the axolotl as Xolotl has taken care of us. References Spence L. Mexico and Peru [Internet]. Senate; 1994. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://archive.org/details/mexicoperu00spen The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Axolotl. Britannica . July 20, 1998. Updated 27 August, 2025. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/animal/axolotl Reiß C. Cut and Paste: The Mexican Axolotl, Experimental Practices and the Long History of Regeneration Research in Amphibians, 1864-Present. Front Cell Dev Biol . 2022;10:786533. doi:10.3389/fcell.2022.786533 Huang L, Ho C, Ye X, Gao Y, Guo W, Chen J, et al. Mechanisms and translational applications of regeneration in limbs: From renewable animals to humans. Ann Anat . 2024;255:152288. doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2024.152288 Suleiman S, Schembri-Wismayer P, Calleja-Agius J. The axolotl model for cancer research: a mini-review. J BUON . 2019;24(6):2227–31. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338630505_The_axolotl_model_for_cancer_research_a_mini-review The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chinampa. Encyclopaedia Britannica . July 20, 1998. Updated 26 May, 2017. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/chinampa Nature on PBS. Wild axolotls are being saved by... nuns and Aztec gardens? | WILD HOPE. Youtube. September 12, 2023. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NL0ad3jBWRI&t=808s Previous article Next article Entwined back to

< Back to Issue 6 Cosmic Carbon Vs Artificial Intelligence by Gaurika Loomba 28 May 2024 Edited by Rita Fortune Illustrated by Semko van de Wolfshaar “There are many peculiar aspects of the laws of nature that, had they been slightly different, would have precluded the existence of life” - Paul Davies, 2003 Almost four billion years ago, there was nothing but an incredibly hot, dense speck of matter. This speck exploded, and the universe was born. Within the first hundredth of a billionth of a trillionth of a trillionth second, the universe began expanding at an astronomical rate. For the next 400 million years, the universe was made of hydrogen, helium, and a dash of lithium – until I was born. And thus began all life as you know it. So how did I, the element of life, the fuel of industries, and the constituent of important materials, originate? Stars. Those shiny, mystical dots in the night sky are giant balls of hot hydrogen and helium gas. Only in their centres are temperatures high enough to facilitate the collision of three helium-4 nuclei within a tiny fraction of a second. I am carbon-12, the element born out of this extraordinary reaction. My astronomical powers come from my atomic structure; I have six electrons, six protons, and six neutrons. The electrons form teardrop shaped clouds, spread tetrahedrally around my core, my nucleus, where the protons and neutrons reside. My petite size and my outer electrons allow my nucleus to exert a balanced force on other atoms that I bond with. This ability to make stable bonds makes me a major component of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates, the building blocks of life. The outer electrons also allow me to form chains, sheets, and blocks of matter, such as diamond, with other carbon-12 atoms. Over the years of evolution, organic matter buried in Earth formed fossil fuels, so I am also the fuel that runs the modern world. As if science wasn’t enough, my spiritual significance reiterates my importance for the existence of life. According to the Hindu philosophy, the divine symbol, ‘Aum’ is the primordial sound of the Cosmos and ‘Swastika’, its visual embodiment. ‘Alpha’ and ‘Omega’, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, represent the beginning and ending, that is the ‘Eternal’ according to Christian spirituality. When scientists photographed my atomic structure, spiritual leaders saw the ‘Aum’ in my three-dimensional view and the ‘Swastika’ in my two-dimensional view. Through other angles, the ‘Alpha’ and ‘Omega’ have also been visualised (Knowledge of Reality, 2001). I am the element of life, and within me is the divine consciousness. I am the beginning and I am the end. My greatness has been agreed upon by science and spirituality. In my absence, there would be no life, an idea humans call carbon chauvinism. This ideology and my greatness remained unquestioned for billions of years, until the birth of Artificial Intelligence. I shaped the course of evolution for humans to be self-conscious and intelligent life forms. With the awareness of self, I aspired for humans to connect back to the Cosmos. But now my intelligent toolmakers, aka humans, are building intelligent tools. Intelligence and self-consciousness, which took nature millions of years to generate, is losing its uniqueness. Unfortunately, if software can be intelligent, there is nothing to stop it becoming conscious in the future. Soon, the earth will be populated by silicon-based entities that can compete with my best creation. Does this possibility compromise my superiority? A lot of you may justifiably think so. The truth is that I am the beginning. Historically, visionaries foresaw asteroid attacks as the end to human life. These days, climate change, which is an imbalance of carbon in the environment, is another prospective end. Now, people believe that conscious AI will outlive humans. Suggesting that I will not be the end; that my powers and superiority will be snatched by AI. So the remaining question is, who will be the end? I could tell you the truth, but I want to see who is with me at the end. The choice is yours. References Davies, P. (2003). Is anyone out there? https://www.theguardian.com/education/2003/jan/22/highereducation .uk Knowledge of Reality (2001). Spiritual Secrets in the Carbon Atom . https://www.sol.com.au/kor/11_02.htm Previous article Next article Elemental back to

< Back to Issue 9 The Life of Matcha by Kara Miwa-Dale 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Ingrid Sefton Edited by Isaac Tian I sway gently in the spring breeze, my vibrant green surface alive with chlorophyll. It’s a warm April day in Uji, Kyoto, and the conditions are perfect. If you haven’t already guessed, I am a matcha leaf. And this is my journey: from a shaded tea field to a powdered cultural icon. A farmer approaches, her movements calm and focused. She hums a soft tune as she reaches towards me. Then, everything goes dark. But this is not the end of my story – it is just the beginning… Cultivated in the shadows About four weeks before I was plucked, my world dimmed – intentionally. Farmers shaded me from direct sunlight using bamboo screens, an ancient practice known as tana cultivation (1). Among this shaded world, photosynthesis slowed and carbohydrates grew scarce. In response, I redirected my nitrogen reserves into free amino acids, favouring the formation of compounds like theanine (2). The shade also awakened genes involved in amino acid transport and theanine biosynthesis, enhancing the pathways responsible for L-theanine production - an amino acid known to induce a state of calm alertness in humans (2). At the same time, the production of catechins, the source of my bitterness, gradually declined (2). I don’t mean to brag, but the fact that I was chosen, among so many other leaves, meant that I was of exceptional quality. My glow-up from leaf to powder Shortly after harvest, I was gently steamed. This critical step deactivated polyphenol oxidase enzymes, stopping the process of oxidation before my leaves turned brown (3). From here, I was then air-dried, my veins and stems removed, and I was ground between granite millstones into an ultra-fine powder – matcha. My transformation into powder amplifies the capacity for the valuable L-theanine, catechins and chlorophyll to be ingested, enhancing my potential effects on the human body (4). A mindful celebration of my life I received the highest of honours: to be prepared in a traditional Japanese tea ceremony. In the 12 th century, Zen Buddhist monks first brought powdered green tea to Japan (5). They valued it as a tool for meditation, as much a spiritual discipline as a drink. The tea master – or chadoka – prepares me with graceful precision. Every movement is intentional; each sip a meditation. The ceremony follows the teaching of ‘ichigo ichie’, a philosophy that refers to the attitude of putting one’s whole spirit into a bowl of tea, since each tea ceremony is a once-in-a-lifetime gathering (6). My consumption increases alpha brain wave activity, a state associated with relaxed alertness, or focus without stress (7). My travels to the West I am one of the lucky ones. Elsewhere, leaves of a lower grade are processed with less care by hurried hands. They are shipped in bulk across continents, their bitterness masked with sugar and milk, where they are sold in Starbucks as ‘green tea lattes’ or in an array of matcha-flavoured sweets, far removed from my cultural roots. In the West, I’ve become something else entirely. A token of wellness, luxury, even a lifestyle aesthetic. I have become a cultural symbol of Japan, while also gaining status as a ‘health food’ and a marker of social prestige – representing the so-called ‘clean lifestyle’, or even the ideals of the ‘performative male’. Anthropologists describe this phenomenon as cultural food colonialism: the commodification of a food or drink by another society, often without a full appreciation of its historical and cultural roots. I am now enjoyed throughout the world, yet my true value and original purpose are sometimes forgotten, consumed more as a passing trend than with the intention of mindful presence. Sometimes I am added to products by companies eager to capitalise on a fad. My chemistry Science plays a big part in my newfound fame. Research has found that the L-theanine, e pigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and rutin contained within my leaves elicit a variety of physiological benefits. L-theanine counteracts the stimulating effects of caffeine, giving drinkers a calmer ‘buzz’ and a more gradual release of energy compared to coffee. This unique combination of L-theanine and caffeine may enhance concentration and memory, while also alleviating stress (8). As a result, I am particularly appealing to those who embrace a ‘slow-living lifestyle’ or to individuals who become jittery from coffee due to overstimulation of the nervous system. Another prominent compound found in my powder, EGCG is renowned for its ability to protect cells from damage, reduce inflammation, and support heart health, while also exhibiting anti-tumour properties. By neutralising harmful free radicals, EGCG further helps to reduce oxidative stress, which is associated with ageing and a range of chronic diseases (9). I also contain a particularly high rutin content compared to other teas. This polyphenic compound is a potent antioxidant and, in combination with ascorbic acid (vitamin C), contributes to cardiovascular protection by strengthening blood vessels and improving circulation (10). In addition, rutin has demonstrated antidiabetic properties, helping to regulate blood sugar levels and improve metabolic function (10). A hot commodity and a growing concern As global demand for my vibrant green leaves continues to soar, tea plantations are expanding rapidly, sometimes at the expense of native ecosystems. My growth often comes with a cost: natural habitats are cleared to make way for me, leading to a loss of biodiversity. Farmers face increased pressure to cultivate larger harvests, striving to meet global demand while upholding sustainable practices. This so-called ‘matcha mania’ has even led to global shortages. Farmers can’t keep up, prices are climbing, and some companies have resorted to limiting purchases to stop people from stockpiling. My rise in popularity is exciting, but it raises an important question: how can we enjoy the benefits I bring while ensuring that my cultivation is ecologically responsible? My future I am torn - pulled in two different directions. On one hand, I swell with pride that my fellow matcha leaves and I are travelling across the globe, introducing more people to the calm, focused energy I can bring. I am pleased when coffee drinkers opt for me in search of a gentler buzz, or when someone slows down to whisk me into a beautiful frothy drink, savouring the ritual and satisfaction I was always meant to inspire. But my popularity is not without its complications. Can the old and the traditional truly coexist with the new? I watch, bewildered, as I am mixed with banana pudding, pistachio lattes, and other curious concoctions. Those consuming these drinks delight in their sweetness, but I wonder whether they can appreciate what makes me special under the layers of so many other products. I fear that my origins may be overshadowed by trends and novelty. I hope that my tradition is remembered, even as I am enjoyed in new ways around the world. Yet if you pause, every cup offers a quiet invitation. The next time you take a sip of my green goodness, take a deep breath. Let its warmth and aroma envelop you, and consider the long journey I’ve taken to reach your cup. From the shaded tea gardens where I was grown, to the careful whisking that releases my flavour, each sip embodies countless steps, immense human labour, and a story that spans cultures and continents. What seems like an everyday ritual holds so much more. In that stillness, remember how even small acts connect us to the world, to tradition, and to the delicate balance between old and new. References 1. Purvis L. Tencha: Why Shade-Growing is Essential to Matcha Green Tea. Mizuba Tea Co . September 26, 2017. https://mizubatea.com/blogs/news-1/it-can-only-be-tencha-why-shade-growing-is-essential-to-matcha 2. Chen X, Ye K, Xu Y, Zhao Y, Zhao D. Effect of Shading on the Morphological, Physiological, and Biochemical Characteristics as Well as the Transcriptome of Matcha Green Tea. International Journal of Molecular Sciences . 2022;23(22):14169. doi: 10.3390/ijms232214169 3. Wang J, Li Z. Effects of processing technology on tea quality analyzed using high-resolution mass spectrometry-based metabolomics. Food Chemistry . 2024;443:138548. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138548 4. Devkota HP, Gaire BP, Hori K, Subedi L, Adhikari-Devkota A, Belwal T, et al. The science of matcha: Bioactive compounds, analytical techniques and biological properties. T rends in Food Science & Technology . 2021;118:735-43. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.10.021 5. McNamee GL. Matcha . Encyclopaedia Britannica. September 10, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/matcha 6. Phenimax Legends of Japan. Ichigo Ichie: The Deeper Meaning Behind a Once-in-a-Lifetime Tea Gathering. Phenimax Legends of Japan ; December 1, 2024. https://phenimax.com/sw/blogs/japanese-tea-article/onetime-onemeeting 7. Baba Y, Inagaki S, Nakagawa S, Kobayashi M, Kaneko T, Takihara T. Effects of Daily Matcha and Caffeine Intake on Mild Acute Psychological Stress-Related Cognitive Function in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Study. Nutrients . 2021;13(5). doi: 10.3390/nu13051700 8. Mancini E, Beglinger C, Drewe J, Zanchi D, Lang UE, Borgwardt S. Green tea effects on cognition, mood and human brain function: A systematic review. Phytomedicine . 2017;34:26-37. doi: 10.3390/foods9040483 9. Capasso L, De Masi L, Sirignano C, Maresca V, Basile A, Nebbioso A, et al. Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG): Pharmacological Properties, Biological Activities and Therapeutic Potential. Molecules . 2025;30(3):654. doi: 10.3390/molecules30030654 10. Kochman J, Jakubczyk K, Antoniewicz J, Mruk H, Janda K. Health Benefits and Chemical Composition of Matcha Green Tea: A Review. Molecules . 2021;26(1):85. doi: 10.3390/molecules26010085 Previous article Next article Entwined back to

< Back to Issue 9 Entwined: A Hug Story by Elise Volpato 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Esme MacGillivray Edited by Steph Liang Ranging from Will’s heartbreaking collapse in Sean’s arms (Good Will Hunting (1)), to Sheeta and Pazu’s cheerful embrace (Castle in the Sky (2)), to Love Actually’s opening scene (3), hugs are everywhere. In cinema, songs, poems or artworks, they embody strong emotional connections. A s we observe and experience affectionate physical touch in various contexts, let us not forget about the importance of emotional connections in our own lives . Sharing a hug with your lover(s), your friends, your family, your pets; it seems to be an ordinary action… for extraordinary benefits. When hugging, we can all feel pleasant emotions such as serenity, joy, love. But what is the science behind being entwined to someone? Both psychologists and neuroscientists have puzzled over this question, and proposed potential explanations from numerous studies. Before we dig deeper into the warm world of hugs, I invite you to take some time to reflect on your own experiences: is physical contact important for you? What makes a good hug? Does being entwined to someone mean something to you? We will see that the perspectives on hugging differ through culture, physiology and psychology. Let’s now unknot the strings of our health through the lens of hugging! Hugging as a cultural practice Hugging is embedded in culture. It is often considered as a social greeting, either at the moment of an encounter between two people, or when they say goodbye to each other. Hugging, rather than handshaking, implies a reduction of interpersonal distance, greater emotional involvement and the willingness to show it. It is important that both people want this closer contact, as physical proximity is not appreciated by everybody. This is where particular cultural customs will feel natural for some and uncomfortable for others, depending on the greeting expectations and the person’s disposition to comply with them. Certain cultures will favour handshakes, kisses on the cheeks, a quick tap on the shoulder, or head nods (4). Hugging is not a universal practice. In fact, hugs are more common in warmer countries (alongside other forms of social touch), and within young people and females, but less practiced by conservative and religious populations (5). Physical touch seems less prevalent in Asian cultures – for instance, compared to countries such as Mexico, Costa Rica, or Sweden, China often has the lowest levels of hugging, whether between partners, friends, or a parent and their child (5). Hugs are also a symbol of cohesion, with sports teams’ group hugs providing motivation before a match or celebration after the victory. Interestingly, most studies into this have been conducted in Europe and Northern America, reflecting a bias in the cultural significance of hugging and what we take it to symbolise. Cultural context highlights that hugging serves multiple functions: greeting, social support, but also group cohesion and strengthening relationships. Why your body wants a hug Whether the cultural environment promotes hugging or not, this action inevitably has a physiological impact on people. A primary belief is that the physical warmth of an embrace makes the body feel relaxed, comfortable, and protected. It does not stop there, with hugging triggering various biochemical and physiological reactions, such as a higher magnitude of plasma oxytocin (bonding hormone), decrease in cortisol (stress hormone), and lower blood pressure (6). Hugging also reduces colds, promoting a more efficient immune system, and daily hugging predicts lower levels of two proinflammatory cytokines (7). Clinically, inflammation is a significant health marker, and plays a role in both mental and physical diseases. These results support the “affection exchange theory”, stating that affectionate interpersonal behaviour decreases stress and enhances immunity (excluding mitigating factors). Interestingly, studies show a general preference for right-arm given hugs. This effect is bigger (92%) when there is little emotional connection between huggers; for instance, in a “Social Media Challenge” setting where one person has their eyes covered and is hugged by random people (8). On the other hand, only 59% of people in international airport arrival halls (who are likely strongly connected to each other) hug with the right arm (9). These findings align with the “right hemisphere theory”, which states that the right hemisphere of the brain is dominant in emotional processing. Therefore, in situations of emotional hugging, the right hemisphere (which controls the left side of the body) takes the lead, so individuals hug each other with their left arm. Hence, emotional networks in the brain affect our hugging behaviour. Mind and perception If physical health can be bettered by regular hugs, we should not forget the undeniable links between physiology and mental health. Indeed, they are entwined in a virtuous circle. Due to decreased blood pressure and pulse, stress regulation is enhanced. This regulation is essential to emotional stability, for example before public speaking (10). Cortisol levels – which are related to both physical and psychological stresses - are lowered following a twenty-second hug, compared to no physical connection. This “well-being hack” works either with another person or even by self-hugging (11). Furthermore, research suggests that oxytocin has analgesic effects and influences pain processing areas in the brain (12). Pain is often thought of as a physical process, but it is multifactorial. In psychology, the “gate-control theory” (13) explains that a “gate” in the spinal cord exerts effects on pain perception by combining excitatory inputs from noxious stimuli with inhibitory ones. Thus, pain perception is modulated by both physical, ascending factors, and psychological, descending elements. As oxytocin release aids pain management, human psychology is positively influenced by the benefits of this neuromodulator, as well as the conscious, pleasant perception of hugging. Clearly, our mental health is particularly impacted by physical connection. As there is a lot of individual variability in the way people enjoy embraces, we may wonder whether hugs are more context-dependent or trait-dependent. When we look at personality traits, extraverted individuals tend to take the initiative in hugging, illustrating their spontaneity and warmth. On the other hand, neuroticism shows a tendency to social withdrawal combined with low self-esteem (14). While personality traits can be present from birth, some elements depend on our experiences during infancy. This is particularly relevant for attachment styles. When elaborating on this theory in 1969, Bowlby (15) described how it was essential for a child to not only experience affectionate and encouraging language, but also caresses and physical embraces, in order to develop a secure attachment. Throughout our entire lifespan, regular and adequate physical touch is hugely beneficial to human development. Conclusion The science behind hugging reveals multiple benefits. As long as the embrace is agreed on by all parties, there are minimal negatives, and the hug makes way for social, physiological and psychological advantages. As human beings, we are a highly social species that craves social connection, whether it is through physical bonds, emotional links, or both (hint: a key factor to achieve both is hidden in this article). Being interlaced is a marvellous way to improve your day, and even your life – go increase your oxytocin levels, I promise it is worth it. In the end, feeling entwined tells a meaningful story: a hug-story. References Scalia P, ed. Good Will Hunting . Miramax Films; 1997. Seyama T, Kasahara Y, eds. Castle in the Sky . Toei; 1986. Moore N, ed. Love Actually . Universal Pictures; 2003. Ocklenburg S. The Psychology and Neuroscience of Hugging . Springer Nature Affective Interpersonal Touch in Close Relationships: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. ResearchGate . doi: 10.1177/0146167220988373 Grewen KM, Girdler SS, Amico J, Light KC. Effects of Partner Support on Resting Oxytocin, Cortisol, Norepinephrine, and Blood Pressure Before and After Warm Partner Contact. Psychosomatic Medicine . 2005;67(4):531-538. doi: 10.1097/01.psy.0000170341.88395.47 Lisa, Floyd K. Daily Hugging Predicts Lower Levels of Two Proinflammatory Cytokines. Western Journal of Communication . 2020;85(4):487-506. doi: 10.1080/10570314.2020.1850851 Packheiser J, Rook N, Dursun Z, et al. Embracing your emotions: affective state impacts lateralisation of human embraces. Psychological Research . 2018;83(1):26-36. doi: 10.1007/s00426-018-0985-8 Turnbull OH, Stein L, Lucas MD. Lateral Preferences in Adult Embracing: A Test of the “Hemispheric Asymmetry” Theory of Infant Cradling. The Journal of Genetic Psychology . 1995;156(1):17-21. doi: 10.1080/00221325.1995.9914802 Grewen KM, Anderson BJ, Girdler SS, Light KC. Warm Partner Contact Is Related to Lower Cardiovascular Reactivity. Behavioral Medicine . 2003;29(3):123-130. doi: 10.1080/08964280309596065 Dreisoerner A, Junker NM, Schlotz W, et al. Self-soothing touch and being hugged reduce cortisol responses to stress: A randomized controlled trial on stress, physical touch, and social identity. Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology . 2021;8(100091):100091. doi: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2021.100091 1.Boll S, Almeida de Minas AC, Raftogianni A, Herpertz SC, Grinevich V. Oxytocin and Pain Perception: From Animal Models to Human Research. Neuroscience . 2018;387:149-161. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.09.041 Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory. Science . 1965;150(3699):971-978. Forsell LM, Åström JA. Meanings of Hugging: From Greeting Behavior to Touching Implications. Comprehensive Psychology . 2012;1:02.17.21.CP.1.13. doi: 10.2466/02.17.21.cp.1.13 Bowlby J. Attachment and Loss: Attachment .; 1969. Previous article Next article Entwined back to

< Back to Issue 5 Serial Killers Selin Duran 24 October 2023 Edited by Yasmin Potts Illustrated by Aditya Dey Serial killers. Do we love them or hate them? It’s hard to know, especially as the media surrounding them is increasing. From fiction to nonfiction killers, our society is obsessed with giving a voice and perspective to these people. We have movies, documentaries, TV series and even Youtube videos accounting the lives and stories of killers. Despite this, people rarely stop to ask themselves why they enjoy this style of media - some of the most wicked and gruesome acts, glorified for the interest of many. Yet, every day we are met with new shows highlighting the life of coldblooded killers. But why are we interested in them? It’s mostly a morbid curiosity; as humans, we are drawn to crime. We want to know why people choose to kill and how they do it. Jack Haskins, a University of Tennessee journalism professor, noted that "humans [are] drawn to public spectacles involving bloody death...Morbid curiosity, if not inborn, is at least learned at a very early age " (UPI Archives, 1984). As a collective, we have always wanted to explore the horrid acts of those who kill. But it’s only with the help of modern media that people enjoy them. Media loves a good story - and what makes a good story? A crazy serial killer on the loose. One of the earliest movies about a serial killer is Fritz Lang's 1931 film M . Set in Berlin, the film details a killer who targets children. Since then, a downward spiral of fictional serial killer movies has taken society by storm. Being all the craze during the mid-80s and 90s, the highest amount of serial killer media were produced in this timeframe. One of the most popular works is director Alfred Hitchcock's iconic Psycho, which won eight Academy Awards (IMDb, 2021). What is truly disturbing is the story of this film. Norman Bates, our killer, is deemed mentally insane and suffers from Dissociative Identity Disorder. Through his personality changes, he proceeds to kill two people during the film, in addition to multiple murders not depicted. Yet, when he is jailed, we learn that his actions were the result of abuse he endured when he was younger. Suddenly, we're forced to feel sympathetic towards his situation. How can that be a reasonable justification towards murder, and why do we applaud the film for this? As a society, accepting murder based on mental insanity seems more than unreasonable - but no one has questioned it thus far. This unfortunately happens not only with fictional killers, but with nonfiction ones. Our interest in killers turns into a way to inform ourselves of these situations (Harrison, 2023). We look to these documentaries and podcasts that tell the stories of the most notorious serial killers to learn something and prevent the situation from happening to us. All whilst indulging in content that emphasises these killers as being regular people, not evil individuals, who committed crimes for personal pleasure. We don’t need to see a biopic about the ventures of Ted Bundy and Jeffery Dahmer. Yet the second you search their names on Google, an all-star cast portraying the life of a man who tortured their victims fills your screen. This is certainly not an ethical thing to endorse. Despite this, not a single person thinks twice about it due to how common it is. Directors are profiting off victims and as a society, we are allowing it because of our curiosity. What happened to compassion? Because I certainly believe we have lost it. We have become so infatuated with killers that their actions seem unimportant to us. We yearn to discover more about their lives and forget that real people were implicated in these events. These killer stories provide bursts of short-lived adrenaline and then we return to our normal lives. In forgetting the consequences of these real stories, we are in many ways as bad as the killers themselves. And that is truly wicked. References Harrison, M. A. (2023). Why Are We Interested in Serial Killers? Just as Deadly: The Psychology of Female Serial Killers . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 17–31. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/just-as-deadly/why-are-we-interested-in-serial-killers/B35C2243B387273749EA164318C27623?utm_campaign=shareaholic&utm_medium=copy_link&utm_source=bookmark IMDb. (2021). Psycho (1960) - Awards . https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0054215/awards/ UPI Archives. (1984). Few answers on origin of morbid curiosity. UPI. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/04/07/Few-answers-on-origin-of-morbid-curiosity/7976450162000/#:~:text=%27Throughout%20human%20history%2C%20humans%20have Wicked back to

< Back to Issue 8 Life Story of a Drug by Elijah McEvoy 3 June 2025 Edited by Weilena Liu Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin From the mythical visions of church goers who took mushrooms in the infamous ‘Good Friday Experiment’ to the extreme self-reflection of those ‘tripping’ off the traditional South American hallucinogenic tea Ayahuasca (1,2), humans have been painting the extraordinary narratives of psychedelics for thousands of years in thousands of settings. Put simply, psychedelics are a class of psychoactive drugs that can alter your thoughts and senses, inducing wild experiences not thought possible in your brain’s ground state (3). One of the most famous of these drugs is LSD. ‘Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds’ is said to have inspired entire Beatles albums and shown Steve Jobs “that there’s another side to the coin” of life (4,5). LSD is also a psychedelic that stands as an enigma in many regards. It is both naturally derived and synthetically created. It has been tested in psychological therapy and psychological warfare. Even the ‘trips’ experienced by its users entail both unexplainable hallucinations and scientifically proven phenomena. While being lesser understood, the stories of LSD’s enigmatic origins, uses and effects are just as interesting as those that come from its users. The Origins Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) or ‘acid’ for short is a semi-synthetic chemical compound with humble biological beginnings. LSD is derived from a class of alkaloid metabolite molecules that are naturally produced by the fungus commonly known as ergot. Ergot fungi are members of the parasitic genus Claviceps , which have been infecting staple crops and shaping society long before acid came to distort shapes in the eyes of its users (6). Epidemics of ergotism, a disease caused by these ergot alkaloids after ingesting contaminated crops, swept across Middle Age Europe and led to the deaths of tens of thousands of people (7). Despite credible arguments to the contrary, some historians have even suggested that the Salem Witch Trials may have been sparked by a form of this disease known as convulsive ergotism. Not only were the environmental conditions in 1691 Salem reported to be optimal for ergot growth in the town’s rye, but convulsive ergotism also induces distinct muscle contractions, paranoia and audiovisual hallucinations (8). These symptoms all would have given credit to the claims of bewitchment made by the young girls that instigated the accusations of witchcraft in the town. Aside from death and dark magic, this fungus has also been used as an effective therapeutic across several eras of history. It’s use as a medication for childbirth was recorded as early as 1100 BCE in China, with midwives using ergot or it’s alkaloids to reduce bleeding during birth, expedite delivery or induce an abortion (6,7). It wasn’t until modern pharmacology advanced in the 20th century that scientists began to chemically characterise these ergot alkaloids and use them as the basis to create potent drugs. The story of how LSD was first created and consumed is one that has been immortalised in history books and unofficial holidays. Dr Albert Hoffman, a Swiss biochemist working for the pharmaceutical company Sandoz, first synthesised LSD in 1938 as the 25th substance in a series of lysergic acid derivatives being evaluated by the company (9). Initial testing of this compound indicated it had no unique pharmacological uses beyond those of pre-existing ergot alkaloid derived drugs (9). However, Hoffman couldn’t shake the nagging feeling that LSD-25 had more to offer. After making another batch of the compound 5 years later, Hoffman’s suspicions grew stronger when he was forced to leave the lab early after entering a “dream-like state… [with] a kaleidoscope-like play of colours” (9). A few days later, in a moment that demonstrated both admirable scientific curiosity and blatant rejection of OH&S, Hoffman took a large dose of LSD himself and set in for a trip of a lifetime (9). Like all good scientists, he recorded his experience in a journal, writing at 3pm on 19 April 1943: “visual distortions, symptoms of paralysis, desire to laugh” (9). Hoffman’s notes for the day stopped there. The Uses April 19th has come to be celebrated as ‘Bicycle Day’, commemorating the seemingly endless and surreal bike ride home Hoffman undertook after this self-experimentation. However, a wacky trip was not the only thing that followed this discovery. After Hoffman distributed the drug to his superiors to try for themselves, LSD was sold on the market by Sandoz under the name Delysid. This drug was employed by psychiatrists throughout the 1950s as a treatment for alcoholism or simply ‘psychotherapy-in-a-pill’ for patients suffering psychological trauma (10,11). LSD not only garnered therapeutic interest from scientists but also more nefarious intrigue from the CIA. Seeking to get an upper hand in the department of mental warfare during the Cold War, the CIA bought up 40,000 doses of LSD from Sandoz and performed a variety of unethical experiments on unknowing prisoners, heroin addicts and even other CIA agents in an attempt to understand the drug’s potential for ‘mind control’ under the MKUltra project (12). Moving into the 60s, LSD’s use amongst budding leaders of the Hippie and Yippie movements gave the drug its countercultural status. Harvard Professor Timothy Leary, who was dismissed from his position due to experimenting (literally) with LSD, promoted the drug as an agent of revolution that allowed the youth of America to “turn on, tune in, drop out” (10) of repressive society. Due to its increasing association with these disruptive movements and eventual outlawing by the US government in 1966 (11), acid’s place in culture shifted out of labs and psychologist offices and into illicit recreational usage by experimental hippies and enlightened artists. The Trip Whether accompanied by an experienced monitor or listening to some soothing vinyl records yourself, the experience of taking LSD is predictably unpredictable. ‘Dropping acid’ is unique in that only micrograms of the drug are enough to elicit a palpable psychedelic experience (13), with most users diluting the dosage on tabs of blotting paper or sugar cubes (11). Following consumption, it takes as little as 1.5 hours for LSD to cross the blood-brain barrier, dilate the pupils and bring users to the peak intensity of the drug’s psychological effects (13). The bizarre experiences perceived by those ‘tripping’ on LSD is rooted in a now well-characterised receptor binding interaction in the brain. The nitrogen-based chemical groups of the LSD molecule first anchor themselves within the 5-HT2A serotonin receptors found in the synapses of neurons (14). While the serotonin neurotransmitter typically helps regulate brain activities like mood and memory, LSD binding instead causes the activation of distinct intracellular cascades within these brain cells (3). The importance of this interaction was demonstrated in experiments that proved blocking this receptor can cancel the acid trip all together (3). Recent studies that have further characterised the chemical structure of this interaction have also shown that 5-HT2A forms a lid-like structure that locks LSD into this receptor protein’s binding site and sets the user in for a long trip (14). From these individual cellular interactions, LSD ignites a burst of brain activity. Modern brain scanning technology has revealed that LSD first disrupts the capacity of the thalamus to filter and pass on sensory stimuli from the body to the cortex of the brain. Upon injection of LSD, patient’s brains demonstrated both an overflow of information running between the thalamus and posterior cingulate cortex and restriction of signals going to the temporal cortex (15). Not only does LSD modify the brain’s ability to sort out important stimuli from the outside world, but this small molecule has also been found to temporarily form new connections between different parts of the brain. Hoffman’s recount of how “every sound generated a vividly changing image” (9) on the first Bicycle Day can be explained by the increased connectivity of the brain’s visual cortex on LSD. This causes areas of the brain responsible for other senses or emotions to become involved in creating the images perceived in the user’s head, causing visual hallucinations and geometric distortion that have no basis in real stimuli coming from the eyes (16). In contrast, Hoffman’s feeling of being “outside [his] body” (9) likely came from decreased connectivity between the parahippocampus and retrosplenial cortex, two regions of the brain responsible for cognition. This severance has been correlated with the greater meaning that those tripping on LSD find in objects, events or music along with their characteristic ‘ego dissolution’ (16). This is a phenomenon where users no longer see the world through the lens of their own ‘self’ and instead feel an increased sense of unity with everything around them (17). Very Hippie ideas with a very scientific explanation. The Comedown and Beyond The float back down from the peak of an LSD trip takes up to 10 hours and leaves its users with a variety of stories and outcomes. Contrary to the fearmongering of parents and politicians, LSD does not leave holes in the brain, does not lead to addiction and has not directly led to the death of anyone as a result of overdosage (3). While the risk of a ‘bad trip’ and the feelings of severe anxiety, fear and despair that come with it may be traumatic, these are typically experienced when taking LSD in unsupportive environments without proper mental preparation (13). In fact, when LSD is taken in a manner closer to the controlled ritual practices surrounding psychedelics of old (3), acid is suggested to have long-lasting positive impacts on the user’s attitude and personality (13). It is these experiences that have rejuvenated the field of LSD research from its abrupt stop in the 60s. Modern investigations have picked up where these scientists left off and are evaluating the potential of utilising LSD-assisted therapy to alleviate anxiety and depression. Studies have focused particular attention on addressing these mental health conditions in those suffering from life-threatening illnesses like cancer (18). While some of these experiments lack the controls or data to make strong generalised conclusions, several studies have demonstrated that patients supplied with LSD reported lasting decreases in anxiety surrounding their condition, greater responsiveness to their families and improved quality of life (3,18). All of this is not to promote LSD as a harmless wonder drug. While rare, LSD has been linked to Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder, a condition in which people experience distressing ‘flashbacks’ to the effects and experiences of past psychedelic trips in a normal setting. Additionally, the changes in visual perception, emotion and thought while one is tripping can also cause users to make reckless decisions in dangerous situations (18). However, continuing to wage war against controlled experiments and supervised therapeutic trials with LSD only serves to limit the attempts of scientists in better understanding the balance between this drug’s risks and benefits. While our trip through the life of LSD may end here, there is still much to explore. The greater story of how we use it, how we view it and how it fits into our society is far from over. References Illing S. Vox. 2018 [cited 2024 Oct 23]. The brutal mirror: what the psychedelic drug ayahuasca showed me about my life. Available from: https://www.vox.com/first-person/2018/2/19/16739386/ayahuasca-retreat-psychedelic-hallucination-meditation Majić T, Schmidt TT, Gallinat J. Peak experiences and the afterglow phenomenon: When and how do therapeutic effects of hallucinogens depend on psychedelic experiences? J Psychopharmacol. 2015 Mar 1;29(3):241–53. Nichols DE. Psychedelics. Barker EL, editor. Pharmacol Rev. 2016 Apr 1;68(2):264–355. Gilmore M. Beatles’ Acid Test: How LSD Opened the Door to “Revolver” [Internet]. Rolling Stone. 2016 [cited 2024 Oct 23]. Available from: https://www.rollingstone.com/feature/beatles-acid-test-how-lsd-opened-the-door-to-revolver-251417/ Hsu H. The Lingering Legacy of Psychedelia. The New Yorker [Internet]. 2016 May 17 [cited 2024 Oct 23]; Available from: https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-lingering-legacy-of-psychedelia Haarmann T, Rolke Y, Giesbert S, Tudzynski P. Ergot: from witchcraft to biotechnology. Molecular Plant Pathology. 2009 Jul;10(4):563–77. Schiff PLJ. Ergot and Its Alkaloids. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 2006 Oct 15;70(5):98. Woolf A. Witchcraft or Mycotoxin? The Salem Witch Trials. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 2000 Jan;38(4):457–60. Hofmann A. How LSD Originated. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs. 1979 Jan 1;11(1–2):53–60. Massari P. Harvard Griffin GSAS News. 2021 [cited 2024 Sep 28]. A Long, Strange Trip | The Harvard Kenneth C. Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. Available from: https://gsas.harvard.edu/news/long-strange-trip Stork CM, Henriksen B. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide. In: Wexler P, editor. Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third Edition) [Internet]. Oxford: Academic Press; 2014 [cited 2024 Sep 28]. p. 120–2. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123864543007442 Stuff You Should Know. Did the CIA test LSD on unsuspecting Americans? - Stuff You Should Know [Internet]. [cited 2024 Aug 25]. (Stuff You Should Know). Available from: https://www.iheart.com/podcast/1119-stuff-you-should-know-26940277/episode/did-the-cia-test-lsd-on-29468397/ Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO, Emrich HM, Hintzen A. The Pharmacology of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide: A Review. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2008 Nov 11;14(4):295–314. Wacker D, Wang S, McCorvy JD, Betz RM, Venkatakrishnan AJ, Levit A, et al. Crystal structure of an LSD-bound human serotonin receptor. Cell. 2017 Jan 26;168(3):377. Sample I. Study shows how LSD interferes with brain’s signalling. The Guardian [Internet]. 2019 Jan 28 [cited 2024 Nov 10]; Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/28/study-shows-how-lsd-messes-with-brains-signalling Carhart-Harris RL, Muthukumaraswamy S, Roseman L, Kaelen M, Droog W, Murphy K, et al. Neural correlates of the LSD experience revealed by multimodal neuroimaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2016 Apr 26;113(17):4853–8. Sample I. LSD’s impact on the brain revealed in groundbreaking images. The Guardian [Internet]. 2016 Apr 11 [cited 2024 Nov 10]; Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/apr/11/lsd-impact-brain-revealed-groundbreaking-images Liechti ME. Modern Clinical Research on LSD. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017 Oct;42(11):2114–27. Previous article Next article Enigma back to

< Back to Issue 6 Hidden in Plain Sight: The dangerous chemicals in our everyday products by Kara Miwa-Dale 28 May 2024 Edited by Zeinab Jishi Illustrated by Semko van de Wolfshaar Water bottles, lipsticks, receipts, and tinned food cans. Have you ever considered what may be lurking in these seemingly harmless daily essentials? These items all contain bisphenol A (BPA), a common endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC). EDCs are chemicals that mimic or interfere with the endocrine system, which is responsible for producing and releasing hormones that regulate important processes in the body such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction (The Endocrine Society & IPEN, 2024). Upon being released into the bloodstream, hormones travel to their target tissues and organs, where they influence key biological functions. Hormones have specific receptors on their surface which bind to matching receptors on their target tissue. The endocrine system is an incredible feat of nature. It creates widespread and long-lasting changes throughout the body via an intricately controlled web of interactions between tiny molecules. However, a small change can be enough to tip this finely regulated balance into disarray. BPA is a type of bisphenol, which is one class among many other types of EDCs, such as phthalates, perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). BPA has a similar chemical structure to oestrogen, an important hormone involved in both male and female reproductive systems. This enables BPA to ‘mimic’ oestrogen; essentially tricking oestrogen receptors into activating in the absence of oestrogen. BPA is known to cause a wide range of negative health impacts, such as reproductive, metabolic, and neurological issues (The Endocrine Society & IPEN, 2024). But don’t just take my word for it. The toxicity of BPA has been debated over many decades, ever since it was first linked to health issues in the 1970s. It has been challenging to generate evidence relating to the toxicity of BPA, given the ethical concerns of deliberately exposing people to EDCs. As a result, scientists have mainly used animal models, alongside studies examining the correlation between EDC exposure and disease, to investigate the action of BPA. Research strongly indicates that elevated exposure to BPA is correlated with poorer egg quality and higher miscarriage rates in women, alongside a reduction in sperm count in men (Matuszczak et al., 2019). BPA is also a known obesogen (a hormone which disrupts metabolism, increasing risk for obesity), supported by a recent study indicating the odds of adult obesity rise by 15% for every 1 nanogram/mL increase in the concentration of their urinary BPA (Wu et al., 2020). Even more concerningly, BPA has been found to have epigenetic effects, which are heritable chemical modifications to DNA which regulate how genes are turned on and off. Scientists were able to demonstrate these epigenetic effects by exposing rats to BPA and allowing them to breed for multiple generations. In this study, rates of obesity and reproductive disease were increased in all subsequent generations of rats, despite only the first generation being directly exposed to BPA (Manikkam et al. 2013). Considering that BPA has been used commercially since the 1950s, it is probable that these epigenetic effects have been compounding in humans with each passing generation. Without intervention, the consequences of ongoing BPA exposure are likely to intensify. It is deeply concerning that BPA remains ubiquitous in the community, with more than 7 million tonnes produced each year (Manzoor et al., 2022). Given its presence in a multitude of everyday products, BPA exposure is essentially impossible to avoid. Detectable levels of BPA are present in nearly all children and adults, and even developing foetuses (Calafat et al., 2004). Mounting evidence for the toxicity of BPA is prompting scientists to call for greater measures in preventing harmful exposure to BPA and other EDCs. What is being done by policy makers to address this issue? I sat down with A/Prof Mark Green, an Associate Professor in Reproductive Biology at the University of Melbourne, to discuss the current research around EDCs and the measures that can be taken to protect the public from their damaging effects. Are BPA-free labels just illusions of safety? There has been a shift towards manufacturing products labelled ‘BPA-free’, such as BPA-free water bottles. This sounds great on the surface: purchase the ‘BPA-free’ water bottle and sleep well knowing that you’re taking proactive action to protect your health. Unfortunately, these efforts may be in vain. As companies manufacturing EDC-containing items have a vested interest in their products being approved as safe, many of these ‘BPA-free’ products are simply being replaced with other bisphenols (e.g. bisphenol F, or BPF), which are suspected to have similar or even worse effects compared to BPA (Wiklund & Beronius, 2022). Fortunately, some countries have started looking towards more holistic ways of regulating suspected EDCs, as noted by A/Prof Green: ‘A positive step forward is that the USA and EU are starting to think about regulating whole classes of chemicals, rather than individual chemicals.’ Introducing this new approach will help to ensure that manufacturers can’t simply switch to a similar (but unregulated) chemical when one is banned. Redefining toxicity: Does the dose make the poison? Another key issue is the current way that EDCs are evaluated for toxicity. A historical principle of toxicology (which has later been challenged) is the idea that ‘the dose makes the poison’. This theory proposes that substances with ‘toxic’ properties only cause us harm if we are exposed to a certain ‘threshold’ amount. In other words, if someone is exposed to five times the amount of a chemical, they will observe five times as much of an effect on their health. However, scientists have found that many EDCs don’t behave in this way. There are some instances where lower doses may, in fact, lead to more severe effects. As A/Prof Green aptly puts, there may be no such thing as a ‘safe dose’ for some EDCs. Blind spots in EDC regulatory testing: Are vulnerable populations overlooked? Regulatory testing procedures often underestimate the negative impact of EDCs by disregarding how hormones affect people differently throughout the lifespan. Embryonic development is a critical period in which exposure to EDCs can have disproportionately large impacts on health compared to exposure in adults. Choi and colleagues (2016) studied the consequences of BPA exposure on developing cattle embryos and observed that even short-term exposure had concerning repercussions on their development and metabolism. Nost testing procedures fail to take these endpoint measures into account. A/Prof Green pointed to examples of toxicology testing in which ‘rates of death and tumours in adult male rats were used as an end point measure to define toxicity, which had nothing to do with more subtle effects on reproduction’. Context matters: Navigating EDC regulation in the real world Another factor to consider is that these individual EDCs don’t exist in a vacuum; the reality is that we are exposed to a ‘soup’ of many different chemicals every day. A/Prof Green noted the inefficiency of testing individual chemicals for endocrine-disrupting properties: ‘Historically a lot of these EDCs have been studied individually, but we don’t know what happens with all the different compounds when they go together, and which combinations are worse. Investigating EDC mixtures is a big gap of knowledge.’ In isolation, small doses of EDCs may not result in any adverse impacts on human health. That said, the interaction of many EDCs may have severe consequences (Conley et al., 2021). These interactions may explain the conflicting evidence surrounding EDCs, where some studies reveal significant effects and others do not. A/Prof Green is currently investigating the impacts of EDC mixtures on human health in relation to the ‘exposome’, which is the cumulative effect of the environmental exposures we encounter throughout our lives (e.g. chemicals, air pollutants, radiation, food). He hopes that a better understanding of these complex interactions will allow us to make more informed decisions about how to regulate EDCs. Paving the path towards a healthier future Unfortunately, the economic interests of companies producing EDC-containing products compete with the implementation of necessary policies. Given the suspected epigenetic effects of EDCs like BPA, taking a more cautious but proactive approach in regulating EDCs seems to be a wise course of action. The burden created by EDCs is huge, with attributable annual disease costs estimated to be $340 billion USD in the USA, and $217 billion USD in the EU (Malits et al., 2022). What can we do as consumers? Are we resigned to bathing in a cocktail of EDCs, awaiting our descent into a dystopian nightmare reminiscent of ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’? Despite the disheartening reality of EDCs, there is room for hope. Scientists are working hard to find safer alternatives to materials containing EDCs, and a growing number of chemicals are facing bans or stricter regulation. The first step in mitigating the negative consequence of these chemicals is increasing awareness about EDCs and reducing our personal exposure to them. Here are 5 tips from A/Prof Green that can help you to avoid unnecessary exposure to EDCs: 1. Don’t drink from plastic water bottles, especially if they have been left in a hot environment. 2. Don’t reheat food in plastic containers - use a microwave-safe bowl or plate instead. When storing leftover food, let it cool before transferring to plastic containers. 3. Try to reduce consumption of tinned foods, as these are lined with plastic resins. 4. Avoid handling receipts, as these are covered in BPA. 5. Ventilate your home and avoid perfumes or sprays with strong smells – these often contain EDCs. To encourage governments and industrial regulators to enforce stronger legislation and tighter controls on EDCs, it is essential to empower consumers and advance scientific research. While our direct influence on policy decisions may be limited, as consumers, we possess the power to drive positive change, promoting public health not only in the present but for generations to come. For some more information, check out these great resources about EDCs: https://www.yourfertility.org.au/everyone/drugs-chemicals https://endocrinedisruption.org/ https://www.ewg.org/ References Calafat, A. M., Kuklenyik, Z., Reidy, J. A., Caudill, S. P., Ekong, J., & Needham, L. L. (2005). Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in a human reference population. Environmental Health Perspectives , 113 (4), 391-395. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7534 Choi, B. I., Harvey, A. J., & Green, M. P. (2016). Bisphenol A affects early bovine embryo development and metabolism that is negated by an oestrogen receptor inhibitor. Scientific Reports , 6 (1), 29318. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29318 Conley, J. M., Lambright, C. S., Evans, N., Cardon, M., Medlock-Kakaley, E., Wilson, V. S., & Gray Jr, L. E. (2021). A mixture of 15 phthalates and pesticides below individual chemical no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) produces reproductive tract malformations in the male rat. Environment International , 156 , 106615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106615 Gore, A.C., La Merrill, M.A., Patisaul, H.B., and Sargis, R. (2024). Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: Threats to Human Health. The Endocrine Society and IPEN. https://ipen.org/sites/default/files/documents/edc_report-2024-final-compressed.pdf Malits, J., Naidu, M., & Trasande, L. (2022). Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals in Canada: population-based estimates of disease burden and economic costs. Toxics , 10 (3), 146. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10030146 Manikkam, M., Tracey, R., Guerrero-Bosagna, C., & Skinner, M. K. (2013). Plastics derived endocrine disruptors (BPA, DEHP and DBP) induce epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of obesity, reproductive disease and sperm epimutations. PloS One , 8 (1), e55387. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055387 Manzoor, M. F., Tariq, T., Fatima, B., Sahra, A., Tariq, F., Munir, S., Khan, S., Ranhja, M. M. A. N., Sameen, A., Zeng, X., & Ibrahim, S.A. (2022). An insight into bisphenol A, food exposure and its adverse effects on health: A review. Frontiers in Nutrition , 9 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.1047827 Matuszczak, E., Komarowska, M. D., Debek, W., & Hermanowicz, A. (2019). The impact of bisphenol A on fertility, reproductive system, and development: a review of the literature. International Journal of Endocrinology , 2019 . https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4068717 Wu, W., Li, M., Liu, A., Wu, C., Li, D., Deng, Q., Zhang, B., Du, J., Gao, X., & Hong, Y. (2020). Bisphenol A and the risk of obesity a systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence. Dose-Response , 18 (2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1559325820916949 Previous article Next article Elemental back to