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Each issue of OmniSci Magazine is created by a team of passionate students, who contribute as writers, editors, designers, and behind the sciences as our organising committee. This interview series highlights six from our exceptional team for Issue 4: Mirage. Interview Series Each issue of OmniSci Magazine is c reated by a team of passionate students, who contribute as writers, editors, designers, and behind the sciences as our organising committee. This interview series highlights six from our exceptional team for Issue 4: Mirage, released in July 2023! Interviews by Caitlin Kane, Graphics by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Meet OmniSci Editor Ta ny a Kovacevic Ever wondered what it's like to contribute to OmniSci? We spoke to Tanya Kovacevic about her experience, from starting writing during lockdown to what's in the words for Issue 4: Mirage! Tanya is currently in her third year of the Bachelor of Biomedicine and studying a concurrent diploma in Italian. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to four articles as an editor. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Writer Mahsa Nabizada Doubting time is real? We spoke to first-year uni student Mahsa Nabizada about her upcoming article on this very topic, plus advice for starting university and why Thorium has a special place in her heart. Mahsa is a writer at OmniSci and a first-year university student planning to study mathematical physics. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is writing about the illusion of time. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Writer and Editor Elijah McEv oy Bored of that one topic you need to keep revising this week? Read our chat with Elijah McEvoy about getting inspired by all areas of science, his sci-fi movie recommendations, and hear about his upcoming article about artificial intelligence. Elijah is a writer and editor at OmniSci and a second-year Bachelor of Science student. For Issue 4: Mirage, he is writing about artificial intelligence that masquerades as human, and contributing to two articles as an editor. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Designer and Committee Member Aisya h Mohammad Sulhanuddin Thinking of joining the OmniSci committee? We spoke to Aisyah, who incorporates her love for design into illustrations, events and social media at OmniSci, and shares her advice for those interested in getting involved (just do it!). Aisyah is a designer and Events Officer at OmniSci in her final year of a Bachelor of Science in geography. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to social media and as an illustrator. READ MORE Meet Omni Sci Writer and Committee Member Rachel Ko Curious what an OmniSci Editor-in-Chief actually does? We spoke to Rachel about drawing anatomy, interviewing a med student hero, and helping build the the science communication universe! Rachel is a writer and Editor-in-Chief at OmniSci, now in her first year of the Doctor of Medicine. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is writing an interview with science communicator, Dr Karen Freilich. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Designer Jolin See New to science? New to Melbourne? New to OmniSci? Yes, yes and yes! We spoke to Jolin about joining OmniSci with an art background, growing through challenges, and her best local exhibit recommendations. Jolin is a designer at OmniSci and an exchange student from Singapore studying Psychology and Arts & Culture Management. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to our website, and to two articles as an illustrator. READ MORE

Science Ethics Should We Protect Our Genetic Information? By Grace Law What is a top story that has been brewing in our news in recent months? This column provides an introduction to the topic and why we should care about it. For this issue, our focus is on the security of our genetic and biometric data. Edited by Juulke Castelijn & Khoa-Anh Tran Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Our genetic and biometric data, like DNA and fingerprints, make each of us unique and identifiable. This information is invaluable in allowing us to verify our identity, predict personal characteristics, identify medical conditions, and trace our ancestry. But there are consequences we should be aware of when we are sharing this data. It is often not known exactly what our information is used for. We must make a more informed decision about the services we obtain in exchange for our biometric and genetic information. The unknown consequences of medical tests Most of us would not hesitate to get a blood or genetic test. These tests have been instrumental in allowing us to identify genetic abnormalities, monitor our health, and provide peace of mind in pregnancies. However, some companies and 3rd parties have exploited the trust patients placed in them to analyse these data beyond the original medical intentions. Reuters reported in July 2021 of a Chinese gene company, BGI, using leftover genetic data from their prenatal test to research population traits (1). The test is sold in at least 52 countries to detect abnormalities like Down’s syndrome in the fetus but it also captures genetic and personal information about the mother. The company confirmed that leftover blood samples are used for population research, and the test’s privacy policy states that data collected can be shared when “directly relevant to national security or national defence security” in China (2). This is not the only instance of genetic data being exploited by a state for mass examination and surveillance purposes. The Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI) published a research paper identifying the Chinese Government Ministry of Public Security’s mass DNA collection campaigns on millions of men and boys (3). It aims to ‘comprehensively improve public security organs’ ability to solve cases, and manage and control society’ (4). Certainly such databases are useful to forensic investigations, but the mass collection of genetic data raises serious human rights concerns regarding ownership, privacy and consent. Furthermore, it opens the possibility of surveillance by the government (5). Everyone should be giving fully informed consent for the usage of their genetic information in accordance with international human rights law (6). ‘At-home’ genetic kits are not guaranteed to be secure Although there is no evidence of such scales of surveillance in Australia, we are not immune to exploitation and questionable practices. Direct-to-consumer (DIC) genetic tests are widely available, often through online purchases. These tests advertise as being able to indicate predisposition to various diseases, including diabetes, breast cancer and heart disease (7). However, as these processes don’t always involve the advice and interpretation of a doctor, there are concerns that data may be analysed beyond current medical understanding. Misinformation, such as misdiagnosis or exaggeration of the certainty of the user’s health conditions, can cause unnecessary anxiety. The discovery of medical predispositions can have ongoing consequences, including refusal of coverage from insurance companies and discrimination by society (8). Under the US Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, employees cannot discriminate against employers on the basis of genetic information. Australia currently relies on existing Commonwealth, state and territory anti-discrimination laws to protect against discrimination in public domains (9). Companies are also not regulated by the law in what they do with the information collected. Many have been found to use the information beyond providing results to consumers, such as for internal research and development, or providing it to third parties without additional consent (10). Ancestry tests are another type of DIC test facing similar scrutiny. As we all share genetic information with our relatives, these tests allow us to identify distant relatives, and even help solve mysteries and capture a serial killer (11). Testing companies therefore have portions of genetic information from relatives without needing to obtain their consent, as well as being able to identify familial lineages. These examples highlight the difficulty of protecting consumer privacy and maintaining ownership of our genetic information. The daily convenience of biometric data and its unintended side-effects Most of us do not encounter the aforementioned tests daily, but we often use our biometric data in many aspects of our lives. As technology advances, fingerprint readers, facial scanners, and even retina/iris scanners are available on our phones to replace traditional PINs. These have been widely adopted due to their convenience. However, our security is being compromised in the process. Not only is your device easier to hack compared to passwords, but the collection of biometric data can also be illegally obtained from improper storage (12, 13). We cannot change our biometric data like a password. Once it is compromised, it is beyond our control. Meanwhile, technology is advancing to include new types of biometric data like voice recognition, hand geometry and behaviour characteristics. As our lives become more public through social media, others may be using this opportunity to collect more information. TikTok’s update on its privacy policy recently included permission to gather physical and behavioural characteristics, but it is unclear what it is being used for (14). These examples highlight why we should be aware of the consequences and compromisation we make in using biometric data for daily convenience. Looking to the future There is certainly no shortage of interest in our genetic information and biometric data. Unfortunately, current legislation is fairly general and therefore not equipped to deal with the variety of issues that emerge with specific technologies. Exacerbating this effect are the continual advances made in this technology, with the law simply not keeping up. But that does not mean we are helpless. A landmark case found that an Australian worker being fired for refusing to use a fingerprint scanner at work was unjust (15). This shows our rights over our genetic information are still in our own hands. While we should be vigilant at all times, it should not deter us from accessing the necessary medical tests or saving us a few seconds each time we access our phones. It is more important to protect ourselves: be aware of our rights, the policies we are consenting to, and the possible implications of a service. Whilst appropriate legislation still needs to be developed, we can hold companies accountable for their policies. We should also be critical in whether we publicise all of our information, and be cognizant of the way our data is stored. This is an instance where we really should read the terms and conditions before accepting. References: 1 . Needham, Kirsty and Clare Baldwin. “Special report: China’s gene giant harvests data from millions of women.” Reuters, July 8, 2021. https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/chinas-gene-giant-harvests-data-millions-women-2021-07-07/ . 2. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. “China’s BGI group using prenatal test developed with Chinese military to harvest gene data.” July 8, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-08/prenatal-test-bgi-group-china-genetic-data-harvesting/100276700 . 3. Dirks, Emile and James Leibold. Genomic surveillance: Inside China’s DNA dragnet. Barton, ACT: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 17 June, 2020. https://www.aspi.org.au/report/genomic-surveillance . 4. Renmin Net. “Hubei Yunxi police helped to solve a 20-year-old man’s duplicated household registration issue.” 18 November, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-08/prenatal-test-bgi-group-china-genetic-data-harvesting/100276700 . 5. Wee, Sui-Lee. “China is Collecting NDA From Tens of Millions of Men and Boys, Using U.S. Equipment.” 17 July, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/17/world/asia/China-DNA-surveillance.html . 6. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights. Paris, France: United Nations, 11 November, 1997. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/humangenomeandhumanrights.aspx . 7. Norrgard, Karen. “DTC genetic testing for diabetes, breast cancer, heart disease and paternity,” Nature Education 1, 1(2008): 86. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dtc-genetic-testing-for-diabetes-breast-cancer-698/. 8, 10. Consumer Reports. “The privacy risks of at-home DNA tests.” Washington Post, September 14, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/dna-tests-privacy-risks/2020/09/11/6a783a34-d73b-11ea-9c3b-dfc394c03988_story.html . 9. National Health and Medical Research Council. Genetic Discrimination. Canberra, Australia: November, 2013. https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/genetic-discrimination. 11. Jeong, Raehoon. “How direct-to-consumer genetic testing services led to the capture of the golden state killer.” Science in the News, 2 September, 2018. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/direct-consumer-genetic-testing-services-led-capture-golden-state-killer/ . 12. Lee, Alex. “Why you should never use pattern passwords on your phone.” Wired UK, 3 July, 2020. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/phone-lock-screen-password . 13. Johansen, Alison Grace. “Biometrics and biometric data: What is it and is it secure?” NortonLifeLock, 8 February, 2019. https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-iot-biometrics-how-do-they-work-are-they-safe.html . 14. McCluskey, M. “TikTok Has Started Collecting Your ‘Faceprints’ and ‘Voiceprints.’ Here’s What It Could Do With Them.” Time, 14 June, 2021. https://time.com/6071773/tiktok-faceprints-voiceprints-privacy/ . 15. Perper, Rosie. “An Australian worker won a landmark privacy case against his employer after he was fired for refusing to use a fingerprint scanner.” Business Insider Australia, 22 May, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-worker-wins-privacy-case-against-employer-biometric-data-2019-5?r=US&IR=T.

< Back to Issue 7 Designing the perfect fish by Andy Shin 22 October 2024 edited by Luci Ackland illustrated by Esme MacGillivray Fish are the oldest known vertebrates, with the earliest fossil evidence dating back to the lower Cambrian period almost 530 million years ago (Shu et al., 1999). Since their inception, fish have exhibited a variety of different physical and behavioural traits to best exploit their environments. Over time, the effectiveness of these traits will be tested through competitive pressures or environmental factors. This raises a rather silly but nonetheless interesting question; if we could design a ‘frankenfish’ using features from other fish, what would the best combination of traits be for our modern oceans? Will older trends still work today? Is there a fish now that is already perfect? To help us answer this question, we will need to set a few ground rules: The idea of a ‘perfect’ animal is incredibly subjective and does not follow any known ecological frameworks. For this thought experiment, our ‘frankenfish’ will need to be able to manage the impacts of climate change and global fisheries. We will assume that the frankenfish must compete with existing species in the ocean. We can choose where we initially release our fish. Other than a rapidly warming ocean, we will assume no catastrophic extinction level event. We will assume that our frankenfish will survive long enough to reproduce at least once, ensuring the initial population is allowed to grow in size. Considerations Thermal tolerance With mean ocean sea surface temperatures predicted to increase by 1-2 degrees Celsius in the next century (Mimura, 2013), we should first design our fish after more tropical or temperate species. If sea surface temperatures become too high, our new fish could move towards the poles. This phenomenon is known as a range shift (Rubenstein et al., 2023) and has already been performed by many different marine species in recent years. When looking at the larval stages of different marine organisms, those that live in higher temperatures are generally better-equipped to deal with changes in the surrounding temperature (Marshall & Alvarez-Noriega, 2020). Trophic position Although it would be fun to simply create a new apex predator, we will need to think of trade-offs between energy expenditure, energy requirements and food availability. As a general rule of thumb, only 10% of caloric energy is transferred through each trophic level (Lindeman, 1942). Essentially, this means an organism at the top of the food chain will need to consume thousands of different organisms over its lifetime. Likewise, a lower-order organism will likely be a food source for a higher one but require less total energy to grow and reproduce over its lifetime. Essentially, there will be more room in the environment for lower-order fish, meaning more individuals can be placed, increasing the chance of successful future reproductive events. Life history and reproductive strategy In the world of ecology, species can broadly be categorised into 2 groups based on life history strategies: r-selected and k-selected species (Pianka, 1970). R-selected species tend to produce large numbers of offspring, develop quickly, and have higher rates of offspring mortality. Likewise, k-selected species develop slower, have less offspring but have higher rates of offspring survivorship. Group behaviours Fish often display group behaviours known as schooling and shoaling. Shoaling refers to a congregation of fish, whilst schooling requires coordinated movement of fish in the same direction. By grouping together, fish have less individual risk of being eaten by a predator and the group’s ability to sense danger is also heightened. Furthermore, schooling behaviour can reduce the energy an individual fish spends whilst swimming by 20% (Marras et al., 2014). Group behaviour may also lead to confusing an inexperienced predator (Magurran, 1990), though many modern predator species have adaptations to take advantage of shoals and schools. There are some drawbacks to group behaviour. Firstly, fish will have access to less food individually as enough food will need to be distributed across the group. Secondly, groups which grow too large attract large numbers of predators and lead to ‘bait balls’, which is essentially a floating buffet for any larger animal. Group behaviour is incredibly common in lower-order fish but is also exhibited in higher order predators such as Tuna and some shark species. It is estimated that almost half of all fish species will partake in group behaviour at some point in their lifecycle. Scales, Plates and Skin The structure of skin has implications for the hydrodynamics of an organism, influencing the level of lift and drag. The type of skin will also influence protection from parasites and predators. We will briefly discuss two types of scales, but other specialised scales exist. The skin of cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) is composed of microscopic interlocking teeth-like structures known as placoid scales. The unique design of placoid scales facilitates the formation of small whorls whilst moving, reducing the drag experienced by the fish (Helfman et al., 2009, pp. 23–41). Placoid scales also act as a parasite deterrent, comparable to antifouling designs in modern cargo ships. Alternatively, many teleosts (bony fish) are covered in larger (non-microscopic), thinner scales known as leptoid scales (Helfman et al., 2009, pp. 23–41). These are further differentiated into circular and toothed scales (Helfman et al., 2009, pp. 23–41). Circular scales are smoother and uniformed, whilst toothed scales are rougher. Similar to placoid scales, leptoid scales reduce drag experienced by the fish (Roberts, 1993). Additionally, leptoid scales can be highly reflective, allowing for a unique form of camouflage known as silvering (Herring, 2001). Another thing to consider is colour. Red light is almost invisible past 40 metres of depth (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, n.d.), whilst blues and greys can. provide better camouflage from predators above and below you through countershading (Ruxton et al., 2004). Extra features – toxins, slime and light These are niche defence mechanisms which reduce the risk of predation. When agitated, Hagfish are able to release a thick, quickly expanding mucus from their skin, blocking the gills of an attacking fish (Zeng et al., 2023). Hagfish are only able to remove excess mucus on their skin by creating a knot with their own body (Böni et al., 2016), which is possible thanks to their eel-like shape. This design may not translate well when creating our own perfect fish, as the elongated shape limits it to the bottom of the ocean (Friedman et al., 2020). Other fish, such as some species of pufferfish, house bacteria in various organs that produce toxins which pool in livers and ovaries. A downside with toxins is that they only work if an attacker is already aware of their effect, meaning at least 1 pufferfish was consumed in the past. Furthermore, some fish species can ignore the effect of certain toxins. Toxin-producing bacteria is acquired through diet, which could limit the dietary range of our frankenfish. Other species of fish such as lionfish, stonefish and some catfish contain specialised venom glands which release toxins along the spines of their fins, which is considered a more efficient delivery method. Even without toxins, sharper fins can act as a deterrent for predators from swallowing you whole. Fish living in deeper waters tend to display bioluminescence, which causes them to produce light with the help of bacteria. This has numerous benefits including startling predators, camouflage, attracting food, and in unique cases allows an animal to see red pigments deep underwater (Young & Roper, 1976; Herring & Cope, 2005). As a downside, humans tend to exploit bioluminescence and use it to find large groups of fish and squid. Past and current champions The armoured fish The armoured fish, known as Placodermi, were a widespread group of fish who were prominent during the Devonian period (419 – 359 mya). The Placoderms are subdivided into 8 orders based on body shape characteristics, the most successful of which was known as Arthrodira. Species in Arthrodira occupied a variety of different niches from apex predators to detrital feeders, but all shared the common feature of jointed armour plates near the neck and face. The Placoderms were never outcompeted in their 60-million-year run. Instead, their time on Earth was cut short by multiple catastrophic events associated with the Late Devonian extinction. This could suggest that without random chance, the Placoderms would never have been dethroned. Sharks Sharks emerged at a similar time to the Placoderms but managed to survive the Late Devonian extinction events. Sharks have a cartilaginous skeleton as well as electromagnetic receptors known as Ampullae of Lorenzini, which are used to detect prey activity. The body plan of sharks has stayed relatively consistent over the last 400 million years, and they’ve managed to survive various extinction level events. The only issue with sharks is their value to humans, leading to millions of sharks being harvested for fins each year. Sharks are a k-selected species and produce only a handful of young. Most sharks deposit a handful of eggs which are protected by a casing and filled with yolk, increasing the fitness of a successful juvenile but also increasing the chance of predation removing it from the gene pool. Smaller egg clutches also mean the loss of a young shark has a higher relative impact on a population compared to a mass spawning species. Bristlemouths and Lanternfish These are similar families of fish and are some of the most abundant vertebrates on the planet. Unlike sharks, these fish are R-selected. Otolith (fish ear bone) samples suggest both families rose to prominence at least 5 million years ago (Přikryl & Carnevale, 2017; Schwarzhans & Carnevale, 2021) due to a massive bloom in phytoplankton. Out of these 2 groups, the Bristlemouths are the most abundant. Although survey data from the deep ocean is rare, prior studies revealed between 70-80% of all deep-sea fish were a variation of a Bristlemouth (Sutton et al., 2010). Despite their abundance, not too much is known about the Bristlemouth due to the depths they inhabit; 1000- 2000 metres. Meanwhile, Lanternfish are responsible for displaying a rising and falling ‘false sea floor’ in early sonar technology, known as the Deep Scattering Layer (Carson et al., 1951/1991). Movement of the layer is attributed to Diel Vertical Migration, a phenomenon where fish will move up and down the water column at certain times of day to avoid predation (Ritz et al., 2011). Constructing our fish Despite the historical success of the Placoderms, current trends in prey behaviours and morphology means armoured jaws are unlikely to be very useful in modern oceans (Bellwood et al., 2015). Furthermore, armoured plates will be heavier compared to scales or cartilage, meaning excess energy will have to be gathered via predation. Given that the oceans are abundant in second-order consumers such as zooplankton and planktotrophic fish, it may be worthwhile to make our new fish a third-order consumer. The sheer abundance of bristlemouths and lanternfish should make up for the inefficiencies of higher trophic levels. Habitat-wise, our new fish should adopt a pelagic (open ocean) lifestyle to best take advantage of the abundant smaller prey animals. When thinking of behaviours, our fish taking a nocturnal approach would work best to exploit the previously mentioned diel vertical migration behaviours seen in bristlemouths and lanternfish. This also allows for daytime predator avoidance, providing our fish the best possible chance to grow in numbers and proliferate. Given the trophic position of our fish, it is reasonable to also give it the capability to form schools and shoals. The group energy costs can be offset by the abundance of prey species, which also exhibit group behaviour. The best place to release our new fish would be somewhere in the mid-latitudes. This would make it more tolerant to higher temperatures and the percentage of global ocean area is only expected to increase in the near future (unless humans can somehow revert anthropogenic climate change). Our fish should be relatively slender and be red in colour. In theory, when combined with the depth of habitat, this will make our frankenfish almost invisible to organisms without additional specialised adaptations. Taking a page from the squid playbook, small bioluminescent regions along the top half of the fish would provide some further camouflage from predators looking down. The spines on our fish’s fins should be longer and sharper than average. For fun, we can also give our fish a venomous gland. Combining long spines with venom could dissuade some predators from eating our fish, through either awkward positioning or risk of poisoning. References Alexander, R. M. (2004). Hitching a lift hydrodynamically - in swimming, flying and cycling. Journal of Biology , 3 (2), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/jbiol5 Bellwood, David R., Goatley, Christopher H. R., Bellwood, O., Delbarre, Daniel J., & Friedman, M. (2015). The Rise of Jaw Protrusion in Spiny-Rayed Fishes Closes the Gap on Elusive Prey. Current Biology , 25 (20), 2696–2700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.058 Böni, L., Fischer, P., Böcker, L., Kuster, S., & Rühs, P. A. (2016). Hagfish slime and mucin flow properties and their implications for defense. Scientific Reports , 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30371 Carson, R. L., Zwinger, A. H., & Levinton, J. S. (1991). The sea around us . Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1951) Feld, K., Kolborg, A. N., Nyborg, C. M., Salewski, M., Steffensen, J. F., & Berg Sørensen, K. (2019). Dermal Denticles of Three Slowly Swimming Shark Species: Microscopy and Flow Visualization. Biomimetics , 4 (2), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics4020038 Friedman, S. T., Price, S. A., Corn, K. A., Larouche, O., Martinez, C. M., & Wainwright, P. C. (2020). Body shape diversification along the benthic– pelagic axis in marine fishes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 287 (1931), 20201053. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.1053 Helfman, G. S., Collette, B. B., Facey, D. E., & Bowen, B. W. (2009). The Diversity of Fishes: Biology, Evolution and Ecology. In Copeia (2nd ed., Issue 2, pp. 23–41). John Wiley & Sons. Herring, P. (2001). The Biology of the Deep Ocean. In Oxford University Press eBooks . Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198549567.001.0001 Herring, P. J., & Cope, C. (2005). Red bioluminescence in fishes: on the suborbital photophores of Malacosteus, Pachystomias and Aristostomias. 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What, if anything, is the adaptive function of countershading? Animal Behaviour , 68 (3), 445–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.12.009 Schwarzhans, W., & Carnevale, G. (2021). The rise to dominance of lanternfishes (Teleostei: Myctophidae) in the oceanic ecosystems: a paleontological perspective. Paleobiology , 47 (3), 446–463. doi.org The rise to dominance of lanternfishes (Teleostei: Myctophidae) in the oceanic ecosystems: a paleontological perspective | Paleobiology | Cambridge Core The rise to dominance of lanternfishes (Teleostei: Myctophidae) in the oceanic ecosystems: a paleontological perspective - Volume 47 Issue 3 Shu, D.-G., Luo, H.-L., Morris, S. C., Zhang, X.-L., Hu, S.-X., Chen, L., Han, J., Zhu, M., Li, Y., & Chen, L.-Z. (1999). Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China. Nature , 402 (6757), 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1038/46965 Sutton, T. T., Wiebe, P. H., Madin, L., & Bucklin, A. (2010). Diversity and community structure of pelagic fishes to 5000m depth in the Sargasso Sea. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography , 57 (24-26), 2220–2233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.09.024 Young, R., & Roper, C. (1976). Bioluminescent countershading in midwater animals: evidence from living squid. Science , 191 (4231), 1046–1048. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251214 Zeng, Y., Plachetzki, D. C., Nieders, K., Campbell, H., Cartee, M., Pankey, M. S., Guillen, K., & Fudge, D. (2023). Epidermal threads reveal the origin of hagfish slime. ELife , 12 , e81405. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.81405 Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 7 Tip of the Iceberg: An Overview of Cancer Treatment Breakthroughs by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo 22 October 2024 edited by Zeinab Jishi illustrated by Louise Cen Throughout the history of science, there have been many firsts. Anaximander, a Greek scholar, was the first person to suggest the idea of evolution. Contrary to popular belief, the Montgolfier brothers were the pioneers of human flight by their invention of the hot air balloon, as opposed to another pair of brothers, the Wright brothers. In 1976, the first ever vaccine was created by an English doctor, who tested his theory in a rather peculiar manner that would not be approved by today’s ethics guidelines (Rocheleau, 2020). While there have been many extraordinary discoveries, there continue to be many firsts and many breakthroughs that have pathed the way for the next steps in research. In particular is research into ground-breaking treatments for cancer patients. 1890s: Radiotherapy (Gianfaldoni, S., Gianfaldoni, R., Wollina, U., Lotti, J., Tchernev, G., & Lotti, T. 2017) In the last decade of the 19th century, Wilhelm Conrad Rцntgen made the discovery of X-rays, drastically changing the medical scene for treating many diseases. From this discovery, Emil Herman Grubbe commenced the first X-ray treatment for breast cancer, while Antoine Henri Becquerel began to delve deeper into researching radioactivity and its natural sources. In the same year that Rцntgen discovered X-rays, Maria Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie shared theirs vows together, and only three years later, discovered radium as a source for radiation. By then, during a time where skin cancers were frequently treated, this discovery had kick-started the research field into X-rays as well as the use of X-rays in the medical field. Scientists and clinicians have gained a greater understanding of radiation as treatment for diseases, but the research does not stop there and the advancement of radiotherapy only continues to thrive. 1940s: First Bone Marrow Transplant (Morena & Gatti, 2011) Following World War II, the physical consequences of war accelerated research into tissue transplantation. Skin grafts were needed for burn victims, blood transfusions needed ABO blood typing, and the high doses of radiation led to marrow failure and death. During this time, Peter Medawar started his research into rejection of skin grafts as requested by the Medical Research Council during World War II. It was a priority for the treatment of burn victims. Medawar had concluded that graft rejection was a result of an immunological phenomenon related to histocompatibility antigens. Histocompatibility antigens are cell surface glycoproteins that play critical roles in interactions with immune cells. They are unique to every individual and essentially flags one’s cell as their own, therefore making every individual physically unique. 1953: First Human Tumour Cured In 1953, Roy Hertz and Min Chiu Li used a drug, methotrexate, to treat the first human tumour — a patient with choriocarcinoma. Choriocarcinoma is an aggressive neoplastic trophoblastic disease, and can be categorised into two types — gestational and non-gestational (Bishop & Edemekong, 2023). The cancer primarily affects women, as it grows aggressively in a woman’s uterus (MedlinePlus., 2024). However, it can also occur in men as part of a mixed germ cell tumour (Bishop & Edemekong, 2023). Methotrexate is commonly used in chemotherapy as it acts as an antifolate antimetabolite that induces a cytotoxic effect on cells. Once methotrexate is taken up by cells, it forms methotrexate-polyglutamate, which in turn inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme important for DNA and RNA synthesis (Hanood & Mittal, 2023). Therefore, by inhibiting DNA synthesis, the drug induces a cytotoxic effect on the cancerous cells. Since the first cure of choriocarcinoma using methotrexate, the drug has both been commonly used for chemotherapy and other applications, including as an immunosuppressant for autoimmune diseases (Hanoodi & Mittal, 2023). 1997: First ever targeted drug: rituximab (Pierpont, Limper, & Richards, 2018) Jumping ahead a few decades and 1997 was the year that JK Rowling published Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone . It was also the year that the first targeted anti-cancer drug was approved by the U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA), rituximab. Ronald Levy created rituximab with the purpose of targeting malignant B cells. B cells express an antigen – CD20 – which allows B cells to develop and differentiate. Rituximab is an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody, meaning that it targets the CD20 antigens expressed on malignant B cells. It had improved the progression-free survival and overall survival rates of many patients who had been diagnosed with B cell leukemias and lymphomas (Pavlasova & Mraz, 2020). Much like the Philosopher’s Stone, you may consider rituximab to increase longevity of patients diagnosed with B cell cancers. Although Levy created this drug, his predecessors should not be ignored. Prior to his research and development of rituximab, research and development of monoclonal antibodies can be dated all the way back to the late 1970s (Pavlasova & Mraz, 2020). César Milstein and Georges J. F. Köhler developed the first monoclonal antibody in the mid-1970s, and first described the method for generating large amounts of monoclonal antibodies (Leavy, 2016). Milstein and Köhler were able to achieve this by producing a hybridoma – “ a cell that can be grown in culture and that produces immunoglobulins that all have the same sequence of amino acids and consequently the same affinity for only one epitope on an antigen that has been chosen by the investigator” (Crowley & Kyte, 2014). They had produced a cell with origins from a myeloma cell line and spleen cells from mice immunised against sheep red blood cells (Leavy, 2016). Going forward: CAR T Cells The most recent and exciting development in cancer research has been the development and usage of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. CAR T cell therapy is a unique therapy customised to each individual patient, as the CAR T cells used are derived from the patient’s own T cells. The process involves leukapheresis, where the patient’s T cells are collected, and these collected T cells are then re-engineered to include the CAR gene. The patient’s own CAR T cells are produced, expanded and subsequently infused back into the patient. The first concept of CAR T cells to be described was in 1987 by Yoshihisa Kuwana and others in Japan. Following this, different generations of CAR T cells have now been developed and trialled, leading to the FDA’s first two approvals for CAR T cells (Wikipedia Contributors, 2024). This research avenue has only scratched the surface, with many individuals now exploring the best collection methods and how best to stimulate the “fittest” T cells - the apex predator of immune cells. A recent paper was published where CAR T cells were trialled as a second line therapy to follow ibrutinib-treated blood cancers. The phase 2 TARMAC study involved using anti-CD19 CAR T cells to treat patients with relapsed mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) who had been exposed to ibrutinib, a drug used to treat B cell cancers by targeting Bruton Kinase Tyrosine (BTK) found in B cells. The study showed that 80% of patients who had previous exposure to ibrutinib and were treated with CAR T cells as a second-line therapy achieved a complete response. Furthermore, at the 13-month follow-up, the 12-month progression free survival rate was estimated to be 75% and the overall survival rate to be 100% (Minson et al., 2024)! It is without a doubt that as humans, we are naturally curious creatures. It is with this curiosity that we have journeyed through the many scientific breakthroughs and innovations. And within each special nook and cranny of countless fields of science, from flight to evolution, from vaccines to cancer treatments, there have been multitudes of discoveries. There is no doubt that the number of innovations will only continue to grow. References Bishop, B., & Edemekong, P. (2023). Choriocarcinoma. StatPearls . Crowley, T., & Kyte, J. (2014). Section 1 - Purification and characterization of ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase from chloroplasts of S. oleracea . In Experiments in the Purification and Characterization of Enzymes (pp. 25–102). Gianfaldoni, S., Gianfaldoni, R., Wollina, U., Lotti, J., Tchernev, G., & Lotti, T. (2017). An overview on radiotherapy: From its history to its current applications in dermatology. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 5 (4), 521–525. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2017.122 Hanoodi, M., & Mittal, M. (2023). Methotrexate. StatPearls . Leavy, O. (2016). The birth of monoclonal antibodies. Nature Immunology, 17 (Suppl 1), S13. https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.3608 MedlinePlus. (2024). Choriocarcinoma. MedlinePlus . https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001496.htm#:~:text=Choriocarcinoma%20is%20a%20fast%2Dgrowing,pregnancy%20to%20feed%20the%20fetus Minson, A., Hamad, N., Cheah, C. Y., Tam, C., Blombery, P., Westerman, D., Ritchie, D., Morgan, H., Holzwart, N., Lade, S., Anderson, M. A., Khot, A., Seymour, J. F., Robertson, M., Caldwell, I., Ryland, G., Saghebi, J., Sabahi, Z., Xie, J., Koldej, R., & Dickinson, M. (2024). CAR T cells and time-limited ibrutinib as treatment for relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma: The phase 2 TARMAC study. Blood, 143 (8), 673–684. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.2023021306 Morena, M., & Gatti, R. (2011). A history of bone marrow transplantation. Haematology/Oncology Clinics, 21 (1), 1–15. Pavlasova, G., & Mraz, M. (2020). The regulation and function of CD20: An "enigma" of B-cell biology and targeted therapy. Haematologica, 105 (6), 1494–1506. https://doi.org/10.3324/haematol.2019.243543 Pierpont, T. M., Limper, C. B., & Richards, K. L. (2018). Past, present, and future of rituximab: The world’s first oncology monoclonal antibody therapy. Frontiers in Oncology, 8 , 163. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2018.00163 Rocheleau, J. (2020). 50 famous firsts from science history. Stacker . https://stacker.com/environment/50-famous-firsts-science-history Wikipedia contributors. (2024, October 6). CAR T cell. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved October 17, 2024, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CAR_T_cell&oldid=1249695600 Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 6 Editorial by Ingrid Sefton & Rachel Ko 28 May 2024 Edited by Committee Illustrated by Louise Cen Science craves fundamentals. Without a true appreciation of the basics, the most complex and elaborate theories will crumble. Both the natural and manmade worlds are meticulously crafted, full to the brim with nuances and modulations, from the laws of physics to the laws of democracy. There is, in our minds, an inextricable desire for classification, organisation, rationalisation. We are in a ruthless pursuit of understanding, striving to decompose the elemental origins of the world around us into fathomable pieces. What drives this urge to discern the building blocks of life? Perhaps, it is the belief that a bottom-up understanding of the laws governing the universe will afford us the ability to reconstruct and create. To know how to defy these laws, rebelling against constraints of the natural world. It is also conceivable that this desire stems from overwhelm. We may never truly understand the expanse of natural forces, cosmological phenomena and ubiquitous elemental power operating beyond any level of mortal control. By examining the microscopic, science becomes tangible. But in isolation, these atoms, elements, fragments of knowledge are just that: fragmented. Scientific understanding exists on a continuum, where the microscopic informs the macroscopic and is contextualised by time, place and culture. It leads one to wonder how exactly “science” should be conceptualised. There is no doubt many people conceive a certain rationality and procedure inherent to scientific progress. Yet, the idea of a specific methodology with the aim to uncover a particular truth is a relatively modern perception of science. Our yearning for understanding and knowledge, on the other hand, is anything but new. Knowledge systems adapt. We observe, we learn, we ask questions. Scientific method and controlled experimentation inform our understanding. But we are also human; inextricably driven by passion and curiosity and irrationality. Should science seek to exclude these values and forces guiding our intrigue? Elemental asks of its contributors to transform their perspective on scientific exploration and consider these different scales of understanding. Creation, destruction, classification and investigation are united in this issue, through the elements of Science. Join us as we dissect our world, from the most natural senses of the human state, to the most mysterious artificial elements of technological intelligence, and beyond. Come explore! Let us see what we can create. Previous article Next article Elemental back to

< Back to Issue 7 Staying at the Top of Our Game: the Evolutionary Arms Race by Aizere Malibek 22 October 2024 edited by Rita Fortune illustrated by Aizere Malibek Organisms have been competing for biological domination since the beginning of life. Evolutionary adaptations arise from genetic mutations, which propel biodiversification and allow organisms with favourable traits to survive and reproduce. This is the foundation of Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, explaining the rise of antimicrobial resistance and contagious viruses, while also offering solutions to these threats in public health and medicine. Mutations in the DNA of pathogens allow them to adapt to our immunological defences and invade our bodies. Conversely, the variation in our immune cells allows us to detect and defend against pathogens as a counter-adaptation. Medicine has advanced dramatically in the recent decades, with novel vaccines, antivirals and antibiotics being developed quicker than ever before. Unfortunately, persistent pathogens have found a way to survive attacks from our immune systems and drugs, making it difficult to devise an effective cure for these infections. Take HIV, for instance: the virus activates programmed cell-death in our CD4+ T immune cells and alters their metabolism as a survival mechanism (Gougeon, 2003; Palmer et al., 2016). In turn, this directly reduces the immune system’s ability to defend against the virus. This is further complicated by the high mutation rate of HIV, leading to rapid resistance to various treatment options (Gupta et al., 2018). Fortunately, scientific discoveries are helping us develop solutions for infectious diseases. It was found that HIV is susceptible to immune responses in its initial immature stages, which has become a target of the current pursuits in vaccine development for the virus (Picker et al., 2012). Vaccines are beneficial in these cases because they expose memory cells in order to inactive microbial antigens, which are a key cell involved in our active immune responses. This allows our bodies to tackle the pathogens more efficiently, reducing the symptoms and long-term effects of infection. Another emerging treatment option is through CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Originally discovered as a bacterial defence system against viruses, CRISPR allows scientists to precisely edit genes. This technology is being explored not only for its potential to correct genetic disorders, but also as a weapon against pathogens. Researchers are looking into using CRISPR to target viral DNA in infected human cells, cutting it out before the virus can replicate (Mengstie & Wondimu, 2021). If successful, CRISPR could be a game-changer in the fight against diseases like HIV, influenza, and even the next pandemic. However, HIV is just one example of this ongoing evolutionary arms race between pathogens and humans. The phenomenon isn’t restricted to just viruses; bacteria and fungi have also become significant opponents. The rise of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an alarming and rising public health issue today. Antibiotics are increasingly losing their efficacy due to misuse and overprescription. Pathogens like Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) and Staphylococcus aureus ( S. aureus ) have developed multiple resistance mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that break down the antibiotic molecules before they can exert their effect (Reygaert, 2018). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a prime example of antibiotic resistance. Initially, methicillin was developed to treat penicillin-resistant strains of bacteria. However, as methicillin became widely used, new strains of S. aureus emerged that could resist the potent drug. MRSA infections are now incredibly difficult to treat and pose a serious public health threat, particularly in hospitals and healthcare settings where immunocompromised patients are most vulnerable (Collins et al., 2010). Vaccines are not as effective against bacteria and fungi due to the more complex structures of these organisms. So how do we stay ahead in this race? One promising area of research is the development of next-generation antibiotics and antivirals. Researchers are now investigating bacteriophages—viruses that specifically infect bacteria—as a potential solution to antibiotic-resistant infections. These phages, which evolve alongside bacteria, could be used to target and destroy harmful bacterial strains without the collateral damage caused by traditional antibiotics (Plumet et al., 2022). While scientific innovation is key to staying ahead in the evolutionary arms race, public health policies play an equally important role. Misuse of antibiotics, for instance, has significantly accelerated the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria outside healthcare settings (David & Daum, 2010). Governments and healthcare organisations are now pushing for stricter regulations on antibiotic prescriptions and promoting the responsible use of these drugs. Global collaboration is also essential. Pathogens don’t respect national borders, and the spread of infectious diseases is a global issue. Initiatives like the World Health Organisation’s Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS) are crucial in monitoring and controlling the spread of resistant pathogens worldwide. By sharing data and resources, countries can better coordinate their responses to emerging threats, mitigating the risks posed to global health. The dynamic shifts in power between humans and pathogens continues to unfold in this evolutionary arms race. While scientific innovation is allowing the development of new tools, from vaccines to gene-editing technologies, we must also adopt policies that promote responsible drug use and global cooperation. In this race, staying at the top of our game requires constant vigilance, innovation, and adaptation—because pathogens certainly aren’t slowing down. The stakes are high, but with continued research and collaboration, we have the potential to maintain the upper hand in this ever-evolving battle for survival. References Collins, J., Rudkin, J., Recker, M., Pozzi, C., O'Gara, J. P., & Massey, R. C. (2010). Offsetting virulence and antibiotic resistance costs by MRSA. Isme Journal, 4(4), 577-584. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2009.151 David, M. Z., & Daum, R. S. (2010). Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus : Epidemiology and Clinical Consequences of an Emerging Epidemic. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 23(3), 616-+. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00081-09 Gougeon, ML. Apoptosis as an HIV strategy to escape immune attack. Nat Rev Immunol 3 , 392–404 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1038/nri1087 Gupta, R. K., Gregson, J., Parkin, N., Haile-Selassie, H., Tanuri, A., Forero, L. A., Kaleebu, P., Watera, C., Aghokeng, A., Mutenda, N., Dzangare, J., Hone, S., Hang, Z. Z., Garcia, J., Garcia, Z., Marchorro, P., Beteta, E., Giron, A., Hamers, R., . . . Bertagnolio, S. (2018). HIV-1 drug resistance before initiation or re-initiation of first-line antiretroviral therapy in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 18(3), 346-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1473-3099(17)30702-8 Mengstie, M. A., & Wondimu, B. Z. (2021). Mechanism and Applications of CRISPR/Cas-9-Mediated Genome Editing. Biologics-Targets & Therapy, 15, 353-361. https://doi.org/10.2147/btt.S326422 Palmer, C. S., Cherry, C. L., Sada-Ovalle, I., Singh, A., & Crowe, S. M. (2016). Glucose Metabolism in T Cells and Monocytes: New Perspectives in HIV Pathogenesis. EBioMedicine, 6, 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.02.012 Picker, L. J., Hansen, S. G., & Lifson, J. D. (2012). New Paradigms for HIV/AIDS Vaccine Development. In C. T. Caskey, C. P. Austin, & J. A. Hoxie (Eds.), Annual Review of Medicine, Vol 63 (Vol. 63, pp. 95-111). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-042010-085643 Plumet, L., Ahmad-Mansour, N., Dunyach-Remy, C., Kissa, K., Sotto, A., Lavigne, J. P., Costechareyre, D., & Molle, V. (2022). Bacteriophage Therapy for Staphylococcus Aureus Infections: A Review of Animal Models, Treatments, and Clinical Trials. Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology, 12, 907314. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2022.907314 Reygaert, W. C. (2018). An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria. Aims Microbiology, 4(3), 482-501. https://doi.org/10.3934/microbiol.2018.3.482 Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 6 A Frozen Odyssey: Shackleton’s Trans-Antarctic Expedition by Ethan Bisogni 28 May 2024 Edited by Rita Fortune Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration South of the 66th parallel lies a continent desolate and cruel, where the experiences of those who dared to challenge it are preserved in its ice. Antarctica was deemed Earth’s final frontier by 19th-century explorers, and at the cusp of the 20th century, the ‘Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration’ was underway (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. a). Those who answered the call of the wild, to face the polar elements, would be remembered as heroes. Among the pantheon of Antarctic explorers, none are more celebrated than Sir Ernest Shackleton. An Irishman whose name became synonymous with adventure and peril, Shackleton emerged at the forefront of Britain’s polar conquests. During his Nimrod expedition to reach the magnetic South Pole, Shackleton and his crew found themselves within 100 miles of their goal—only to be thwarted by their human needs (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. b). His ambition outmatched the capabilities of those he commanded, so they withdrew for want of survival. Despite the supposed failure of the two-year expedition, Shackleton’s romanticism of exploration, leadership, and unwavering optimism earned him a knighthood in 1909 (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. b). In the years following, as other explorers performed increasingly remarkable polar feats, Shackleton was left in limbo. It was during this time that an impossibly ambitious expedition was put forward to him. The plan was as follows: a crew would sail a wooden barquentine, the Endurance, into the Weddell Sea, and land on the Antarctic coast. There, the men would split into groups, and Shackleton would pursue a daring transcontinental journey across Antarctica (Smith, 2021). Despite the questionable feasibility of this plan, a benefactor named James Caird sought to help fund the expedition (Smith, 2021). Thus, these plans were translated into reality, and with a finalised crew of 27, the Endurance was set to sail under the helm of New Zealand captain Frank Worsley. On August 1st, 1914, the Endurance departed Plymouth (PBS, 2002). Explorers of the Antarctic, from left: Ronald Amundsen, Sir Ernest Shackleton, Robert Peary (Antarctica 21, 2017) The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Into the Weddell Sea, December 5th, 1914 After their momentary recess in South Georgia, and the recent pickup of a stowaway, the Grytviken whaling station remained the crew's last semblance of civilisation (PBS, 2002). Shackleton was well aware of the challenges that loomed ahead—notorious for its hostility, the Weddell Sea was Antarctica’s first line of defence (Shackleton, 1919). In the coming days, the Endurance encountered pack ice, severely slowing its progress. A nightmarish phenomenon for any explorer, pack ice was an abundant drift of sea ice no longer connected to land. While plentiful, navigating it was not impossible—it only required patience, caution, and an intuitive hint of wisdom. But even with worsening conditions, Shackleton proceeded into unclear waters (Shackleton, 1919). The Endurance in the Weddell Sea (Hurley, 1914) Icebound, January 18th, 1915 The Endurance was again ensnared in ice, and this time the ship would not budge. Plagued by regret in pushing ahead, but desperate to break free, Shackleton ordered his men to cease routine. Once again, his ambition outpaced his capabilities, but Shackleton was also a man of determination. They would wait until an opening cleared (Shackleton, 1919). The ship began to drift northward with the ice, but as months passed, so too did any hope of landing. Time was running out, and with winter approaching, the Endurance would soon be engulfed by the long polar night (PBS, 2002). For this expedition to succeed, the crew needed to remain optimistic. A brotherhood formed on the ice, with theatre plays and celebrations to ease their dire worries. The eerie creak of the hull did not deter them from trekking the very ice that imprisoned them. The ship’s Australian photographer, Frank Hurley, captured these moments of perseverance on photographic plates, including the hauntingly beautiful Endurance beset amongst the snow (Shackleton, 1919). The Endurance in the night (Hurley, 1915) Abandon Ship, October 27th, 1915 True to its name, the Endurance weathered the dark winter months. But despite the comfort of a newly rising sun, disaster did not fade with the darkness. A catastrophic ice shift had violently imploded the ship’s hull, and with its fate sealed, the Endurance would not hold. Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship (Shackleton, 1919). Any hope of the expedition continuing was now lost alongside the Endurance , which was silently withering on the ice. Though this was not Shackleton’s first time in Antarctica, nor was it his first disastrous expedition. Stations of emergency supplies established by himself and other explorers were scattered across the islands of the Weddell Sea, each offering glimmers of hope. However, at over 500 kilometres away, they all required a potentially fatal journey (Shackleton, 1919). Frank Wild overlooking the wreck of the Endurance (Hurley, 1915) Ocean Camp, November 1st, 1915 A plan was conjured—they would march across the unforgiving ice, bringing themselves to one of the few sanctuaries along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns of risk from Captain Worsley fell on deaf ears; undeterred, Shackleton knew waiting was futile (Worsley, 1931). Leading up, a difficult decision was made to conserve the crew’s rations. Mrs. Chippy, the beloved ship cat of carpenter Harry McNish, was to be killed amongst the other animals (Canterbury Museum, 2018). Although believing it necessary, Shackleton’s remorseful orders to cull the animals aboard had cast a shadow over his leadership (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). The march soon commenced, but horrendous conditions had led the men into a frozen labyrinth. After a pace of only a kilometre a day, the march was abandoned. The crew instead erected ‘Ocean Camp’, and were to wait for the ice to clear a path for their lifeboats (PBS, 2002). Weeks in, the crew's evening was interrupted by the ghostly wailing of the Endurance wreck . Beckoning in the distance, the men gathered to watch its final breaths. On November 21st, the ice finally caved in, and the Endurance was swallowed into the forsaken depths of the Weddell Sea (Worsley, 1931). Ocean Camp (Hurley, 1915) The Rebellion on the Ice, December 27th, 1915 With the crew’s last tether to the world severed, a depression had settled over the camp. Now dragging their lifeboats to open water, a quiet but persistent discontent was beginning to grow. Most of the crew still admired Shackleton as their resolute leader, but some were beginning to lose faith. A frustrated and grieving McNish made his stand, arguing that the loss of the Endurance had nullified Shackleton's command. Shackleton, furious but sympathetic, was able to successfully de-escalate the situation (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). The mutiny was short-lived, but McNish was now under Shackleton's watchful eye. He knew that he would have to inspire hope, and that a rift in the crew would only prompt death. Dragging the lifeboats (Hurley, 1915) Elephant Island, April 14th, 1916 With three lifeboats in possession, a proposal to island-hop was presented. McNish had spent his time reinforcing the boats for open waters, and after careful deliberation, a destination was chosen. Elephant Island was a barren, windswept landscape—a false sanctuary harbouring an inhospitable environment. Landing there was not Shackleton’s first choice, but a fast approaching winter left no alternative (Shackleton, 1919). With Elephant Island looming over the horizon, the boats set forth. Battling the arduous sea, one of the lifeboats, the Dudley Docker , was torn away from the rest during an unprecedented storm. Fading into the vast darkness, the men aboard were presumed dead. No amount of enthusiasm from Shackleton could lift the crew's spirits, who were now delirious and grief stricken (Fiennes, 2022). The following day, a landing was imminent. Nearing the shore, a boat was noticed soaring in the distance. The Dudley Docker pierced through the waves—the crew still alive and following in hot pursuit. Ecstatic and revived with hope, landfall was made. A major milestone had been reached; the crew were now unified and ashore for the first time since South Georgia (Fiennes, 2022). Unfortunately, Elephant Island’s taunting winds carried no whispers of hope. The silence was apparent: this island would be their grave unless contact was made with civilisation. A party must be formed, one that would take the risk and sail into the heavy seas of the Southern Ocean (Shackleton, 1919). The shores of Elephant Island (Hurley, 1916) The Voyage of the James Caird, April 24th, 1916 Shackleton selected a route to a South Georgia whaling station neighbouring the one they had departed in 1914—a harrowing 1500 kilometres across notoriously restless seas. In one of their modified lifeboats, they were to utilise the prevailing westerlies to attempt an impossible sailing feat (Pierson, n.d.). Six men were selected to commander the James Caird : Shackleton, Worsley, McNish, Crean, Vincent, and McCarthy. As the James Caird set sail, a vast ocean of uncertainty lay between Elephant Island and South Georgia (Pierson, n.d.). The voyage was tortuous, with the men severely ill-prepared. From storm-fed waves to frigid winds, the James Caird and those aboard were unlikely to survive the journey. At each turn, however, the determined men managed to stay afloat and push ahead. 17 days passed before the dominant mountains of South Georgia came into view (PBS, 2002). Shackleton, fearing his men would not survive another day at sea, hastened a plan to land on the rocky western shores (Pierson, n.d.). The six men found themselves on the wrong end of the island to the station, and James Caird was in no state to navigate the coast. The capable individuals would have to perform the first trans-island crossing of South Georgia—a far cry from their original ambitions, but daring nonetheless. With only Shackleton, Worsley, and Crean able to attempt the task ahead, McNish, Vincent, and McCarthy were left to establish ‘Peggotty Camp’ in the landing cove (Pierson, n.d.). Waving goodbye to the James Caird (Hurley, 1916) The Crossing of South Georgia, May 10th, 1916 The three men began their journey northward towards the Stromness whaling station. Encountering menacing snow-capped peaks, the men were so close to potential rescue only to be divided by insurmountable odds. Needing to race the approaching night down a 3000-foot mountainside, a makeshift sled was constructed from their little equipment. Rocketing downhill, a rare moment of joy and exhilaration accompanied the men along their daredevilish tactics (Antarctica Heritage Trust, 2015). Exhausted and verging on collapse, the men were now nearing the outskirts of their destination. A whistle in the air had lured them closer, and on May 20th, 1916, contact was finally made. The men were tended to by the distraught station managers, and a rescue party was sent the following day to those abandoned at ‘Peggotty Camp’ (Pierson, n.d.). After multiple attempts to obtain a suitable vessel, the 22 remaining souls holding steadfast on Elephant Island were finally rescued by the Yelcho on August 30th, 1916. Hope was not lost amongst them, as even in his absence their belief in Shackleton kept their spirits alive. Bringing their ordeal to a close, and without a man’s life lost, the crew’s troubles were left behind in the frozen Antarctic (Shackleton, 1919). The Yelcho arrives to rescue the crew (Hurley, 1916) Legacy Published in 1919, ‘South’, Shackleton’s autobiographical recount of the expedition, brought these remarkable stories into the limelight. However, records stricken from the novel hide some concerning truths. While omitting the incident regarding McNish’s mutiny, it was clear Shackleton resented him for introducing doubt during their time of turmoil. Despite his redemption during their voyage to South Georgia, Shackleton recommended McNish not be awarded the Polar medal—a decision still considered mistakenly harsh (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). But despite his flaws and misjudgments, Shackleton was undoubtedly the optimistic and courageous leader you would seek in times of crisis. In 1922, aboard his final expedition to circumnavigate Antarctica, Shackleton suffered a fatal heart attack - and was buried in South Georgia. Regarded as a defining moment, his death signalled the end of the ‘Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration’ (Royal Museums Greenwich., n.d. b). Exactly one century following, the Endurance was found preserved at the bottom of the Weddell Sea. Its mast still bearing its inscription, the ship remains an enduring remnant of a heroic past. This inspiring tale of survival continues to live on, as one of the greatest stories of human perseverance in the face of the elements. The crew of the Endurance (Hurley, 1915) References Antarctica 21. (2017). Famous Antarctic Explorers: Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton. Antarctica 21 . https://www.antarctica21.com/journal/famous-antarctic-explorers-sir-ernest-henry-shackleton/ Antarctica Heritage Trust (2015). Crossing South Georgia. Antarctic Heritage Trust. https://nzaht.org/encourage/inspiring-explorers/crossing-south-georgia/ Canterbury Museum (2018), Dogs in Antarctica: Tales from the Pack. Canterbury Museum https://antarcticdogs.canterburymuseum.com/themes/hardships Fiennes, R (2022). Remembering a Little-Known Chapter in the Famed Endurance Expedition to Antarctica. Atlas Obscura, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/shackleton-endurance-elephant-island Hurley, F. (1914-1916). Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Photographic Plates. [Photographs]. National Library of Australia. https://www.nla.gov.au/collections/what-we-collect/pictures/explore-pictures-collection-through-articles-and-essays/frank PBS (2002). Shackleton’s Voyage of Endurance. PBS Nova. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/shackleton/1914/timeline.html Pierson, G (n.d.), Excerpt: The Voyage of the James Caird by Enerest Shackleton. American Museum of Natural History. https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/antarctica/exploration/the-voyage-of-the-james-caird Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d. a). History of Antarctic explorers. Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/history-antarctic-explorers Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d. b). Sir Ernest Shackleton. Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/sir-ernest-shackleton Scott Polar Research Institute (n.d.). McNish, Carpenter. University of Cambridge, Scott Polar Research Institute. https://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/museum/shackleton/biographies/McNish,_Henry/ Shackelton, E (1919). South: The Endurance Expedition. Heinemann Publishing House Smith, M (2021). Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Shackleton. https://shackleton.com/en-au/blogs/articles/shackleton-imperial-trans-antarctic-expedition Worsley, F (1931). Endurance: An Epic of Polar Adventure. W. W. Norton & Co Previous article Next article Elemental back to

OmniSci Magazine is the University of Melbourne's science magazine, written by students. Read our recent issues and view the magnificent illustrations! Issue 10: Fact & Fiction Cover Art: Anabelle Dewi Saraswati READ NOW Welcome to OmniSci Magazine OmniSci Magazine is a student-led science magazine and social club at UniMelb. We are a group of students passionate about science communication and a platform for students to share their creativity. Read More More from OmniSci Magazine Previous Issues Illustration by Anabelle Dewi Saraswati READ ISSUE 9 National Science Week 'SCIENCE IS EVERYWHERE' PHOTO/ART COMPETITION VIEW SUBMISSIONS

Ever wondered what it's like to contribute to OmniSci? We spoke to Tanya Kovacevic about her experience, from starting writing during lockdown to what's in the words for Issue 4: Mirage! Tanya is currently in her third year of the Bachelor of Biomedicine and studying a concurrent diploma in Italian. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to four articles as an editor. Mee t OmniSci Editor Tany a Kovacevic Tanya is an editor at OmniSci, currently in her third year of the Bachelor of Biomedicine and studying a concurrent diploma in Italian. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to four articles as an editor. interviewed by Caitlin Kane What are you studying? I am studying a Bachelor of Biomedicine, currently in third year, and a Diploma in Italian. I’m majoring in human structure and function, which looks at how the body works: the muscles, the bones, the visceral organs, everything. I’m hoping to get a research subject placement at the Florey Institute because I have a very big passion for neurology. I feel like it will be fun to get exposure to both what’s happening behind the scenes through research and be able to apply it in the future as well. I want to hopefully go into medicine and become a GP with a focus on neurology. What first got you interested in science? My primary school wanted to start introducing science subjects and I was chosen as one of the students to give it a shot. I found that I really enjoyed it. Especially when the skeleton was brought out of the closet–all dusty and stuff–and we finally started to use it. Then compulsory science subjects at high school, I continued to find that interesting. I thought, I guess I’ll stick with this. What is your role at OmniSci? I started off writing a piece during lockdown and I wrote my first piece about lockdown fatigue. I remember speaking to my psychologist about it because I was experiencing it. When I heard of it, I thought this actually explains a lot so I wanted to share that with other people. I applied for the editing role as well, so that’s what I’ve been doing these last three years. I quite enjoy helping people flesh out their ideas. I find that I’m quite an analytical and meticulous person, so I will always look for the little things that could go wrong and always like to correct them. I thought it was a pretty good fit! What would you say to someone else who was thinking about getting involved at OmniSci? It’s really open with what you can do. You can communicate with so many different people. Getting involved is a good way of exploring your own interests and putting your skills to the test. It’s nice having something on the side that takes your mind off study but is also related to things that you enjoy. It's a good pastime but also something that gives you professional experience. Kills two birds with one stone. What is your favourite thing about contributing at OmniSci so far? I like seeing when it gets printed and everything has been put together, because you really see the contribution of everyone, and it all falls into place. While you're doing it, it’s sort of “I’ve got to focus on this aspect,” but then it’s nice seeing how your feedback has been included and how people have really improved in their writing and been able to use the skills of others. It’s a very collaborative thing that comes together. It’s a good product, especially with all the cool illustrations. I love looking at art–not very good at it, but I love looking at it. It’s exciting to see something that I was interested in while writing or editing come to life in a physical representation, an artistic interpretation. Can you give us a sneak peek or pitch of what you're working on this issue? With Mirage it’s very open ended. Placebo effect is something that everyone talks about, but there are hidden aspects that we don’t quite think about. It’s interesting looking at a bit of the biology behind it, particularly between the different sexes. That’s one thing to look out for! What do you like doing in your spare time (when you're not contributing at OmniSci)? Reading all sorts of stuff, watching TV shows and movies–I’m a bit of a film fanatic as well. Going outside and playing tennis or walking my dog. I love spending time with my dog. My dog is my life so he takes up a bit of my time. Do you have any media recommendations? One of my favourite international films is called ‘I cento passi’ or ‘One Hundred Steps’. It’s an Italian movie about the mafia and the man it’s based on is very courageous. I think it’s something we all need to see to remind us that we do have a voice even in such horrible, dark moments. I think that’s definitely something that people can look into! It’s on Youtube with subtitles [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhc9S8txE9c]. Which chemical element would you name your firstborn child (or pet) after? That’s a very um… specific question! Curium is one, so Marie Curie. Fantastic woman, pioneering woman, who was definitely ahead of her time. Or Thorium, because Thor! Read Tanya's articles Sick of lockdown? Let science explain why. Law and Order: Medically Supervised Injecting Centres Space exploration in Antarctica Believing in aliens... A science? Behind the Mask From Fusion to Submarines: A Nuclear Year

< Back to Issue 5 Why Do We Gossip? Lily McCann 24 October 2023 Edited by Celina Kumala Illustrated by Rachel Ko Have you ever heard of ‘Scold’s bridle’? A metal restraint, fitted with a gag, that was strapped about the face as a medieval punishment for excessive chatter; gossip, it seems, was not received too fondly in the Middle Ages. While the bridle may have gone out of fashion long ago, today the word gossip still carries negative connotations. The Oxford Dictionary, for instance, defines gossip as “informal talk or stories about other people’s private lives, that may be unkind or not true” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, 2023). Entries in the Urban Dictionary use yet stronger terms, going so far as to describe gossip as the “garbage of stupid silly ignorant people” (Lorenzo, 2006). Is this too harsh? Cruz et al. (2021) propose a much more neutral definition in their analysis of frameworks to study gossip, concluding that gossip is “a sender communicating to a receiver about a target who is absent or unaware of the content”. Whether the gossip conveys positive or negative content — otherwise known as its valence — is not a requirement of the definition itself. Gossip, then, is not always “unkind” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, 2023) or “garbage” (Lorenzo, 2006). In fact, with a bit of further reading, we can see that this “informal talk” has played an important part in our evolution and even serves positive purposes in society. In the first sense, gossip is an important facilitator of safety. It allows dangerous situations to be identified: spreading the knowledge that a certain individual is prone to violence, for instance, ensures the rest of a community takes care of their own safety with regards to that individual. On a different note, passing about the fact that another individual is skilled in certain aspects of resource procurement allows wider access to these resources. It is easy to see in these examples how gossip could give a selective advantage in the survival of societies. But the influence of gossip goes further than this. It has been shown that gossip in fact encourages cooperation and generosity (Wu et al., 2015). How? The crucial mediator is reputation (Nowak, 2006). Reputation is incredibly important - see Taylor Swift’s 2017 album for more. A poor reputation leads to ostracisation, and for an individual in prehistoric societies, this could be fatal. Cultivating a good reputation among peers thousands of years ago, as today, improves the chances of success in life by increasing access to resources and the willingness of others to help you. Positive gossip can facilitate all this. So, how do we foster positive gossip? What will encourage someone to put in a good word for us? The most effective approach is to act in a way that benefits that individual. It predisposes them to spread the word of our generosity, helping to build a reputation for goodness that will in turn have positive outcomes for ourselves. Thus, it’s easy to see how behaviours that foster good gossip are incentivised in our everyday lives. This propensity to spread the knowledge of how certain individuals interact with others has been incredibly impactful in the development of human societies. The fact that our species can flourish and sustain itself in such immense populations requires a high level of cooperation - which enables us to share resources and productivity - even with people we do not know. Otherwise known as indirect reciprocity, this ability to work with strangers is enabled by reputation (Nowak, 2006). How else do we know that it is safe to interact with a stranger, other than through the means of gossip, which informs us of their reliability and trustworthiness? But what about when gossip is incorrect? The Oxford definition hints at the possibility that information spread through gossip “may be…not true”. Can untrue gossip hinder our progress, by limiting interactions with individuals who may have the potential to help us, or promoting those interactions that would better have been avoided? And if gossip can be incorrect, does that not render reputation meaningless? What is the incentive to be good, if gossip could label you as a bad egg, regardless (Nieper et al., 2022)? Incorrectly negative gossip can be extremely impactful for the subject of that gossip. Studies have shown that it decreases productivity and prosocial behaviour - not to mention burdening victims with the psychological effects of ostracisation, injustice and loneliness (Kong, 2018; Martinescu et al., 2021). Through gossip, we can exert immense power over other beings. It is understandable, then, that we fear gossip, and try to discount it by painting it as “garbage” (Lorenzo, 2006), “unkind” or “not true” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, 2023). And yet, whilst negative gossip can be a detriment, positive gossip can yield great benefits, reinforcing prosocial behaviour, fostering cooperation and promoting generosity. So, rather than fearing gossip, perhaps we ought to acknowledge its benefits and harness it for good. Perhaps it's worth considering how we can each use gossip to exert a bit of good upon our world. References Dores Cruz, T. D., Nieper, A. S., Testori, M., Martinescu, E., & Beersma, B. (2021). An Integrative Definition and Framework to Study Gossip. Group & Organization Management, 46(2), 252-285. http://doi.org/10.1177/1059601121992887 Kong, M. (2018). Effect of Perceived Negative Workplace Gossip on Employees’ Behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology , 9(2728). http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01112 Lorenzo, A. (2006). Gossip . Urban Dictionary. Accessed October 10, 2023. https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=gossip Martinescu, E., Jansen, W., & Beersma, B. (2021). Negative Gossip Decreases Targets’ Organizational Citizenship Behavior by Decreasing Social Inclusion: A Multi-Method Approach. Group and Organization Management, 46(3), 463-497. http://doi.org/10.1177/1059601120986876 Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries. (2023). Gossip - definition . Accessed October 10, 2023. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/american_english/gossip_1#:~:text=gossip-,noun,all%20the%20gossip%20you%20hear . Nieper, A. S., Beersma, B., Dijkstra, M. T. M., & van Kleef, G. A. (2022). When and why does gossip increase prosocial behavior? Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 315-320. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.10.009 Nowak, M. A. (2006). Five Rules for the Evolution of Cooperation . Science, 314(5805), 1560-1563. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133755 Wu, J., Balliet, D., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2015). When does gossip promote generosity? Indirect reciprocity under the shadow of the future. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(8), 923-930. http://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615595272 Wicked back to

< Back to Issue 6 A Brief History of the Elements: Finding a Seat at the Periodic Table by Xenophon Papas 28 May 2024 Edited by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo Illustrated by Rachel Ko What are we made of and where did it all come from? Such questions have pervaded the minds of scientific thinkers since ancient times and have entered all fields of enquiry, from the physical to the philosophical. Our best scientific theory today asserts that we’re made of atoms, and these atoms come in different shapes and sizes. Fundamentally, they can be described by the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) they contain (Jefferson Lab, 2012). Neatly arranged in a grid, these different elements form the periodic table we know and love today; but it was not always this way. The story of how the periodic table of elements came to be harks back to Ancient Greece and winds its way through the enlightenment into the 20th century. It is an unfinished story of which we are at the frontier of today: in search of dark matter and the ultimate answer to what the universe is made of. We may never know for sure exactly what everything in existence consists of, but it’s a pursuit our earliest ancestors would be proud to see us follow. Thales was first in the ancient Greek-speaking world to postulate about the origins of all material things. He theorised that all matter in the universe was made up of just one type of substance – water – and any other forms of solids, liquids and gases were just derivatives thereof. This idea was not initially opposed, given Thales was one of the earliest of the Ancient Greeks to pursue such questions of a scientific nature. Afterall, he’s remembered today as the “Father of Science” in the Western world. As Thales was from Miletus, a city on the coast of the Ionian Sea in modern day Türkiye and part of Magna Graecia in the 6th cent BC, it is not hard to imagine that water was a crucial aspect in trade, agriculture, and daily life at the time. However, this seemed to oversimplify the matter to some of his contemporaries. Empedocles, who was considered more a magician than a philosopher, revised this mono-elemental theorisation in the 5th Century BC. He proposed four basic substances from which all others were made (Mee, 2020). We know them today famously as the four classical elements: Earth, Air, Water and Fire. This asserted a fundamental principle of “fourness”, encompassing the cardinal directions in the Western world during this time. Interestingly, concurrent to this other traditions such as those in China acknowledged five elements and compass points instead. A generation later to Empedocles’ work, Plato embraced his “fourish” formulation. Being heavily influenced by mathematics as the medium through which we make reason of the natural world, Plato related each of these elements to a mathematical object: a convex, regular polyhedron in three-dimensional Euclidean space, otherwise known as a Platonic solid. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, and fire with the tetrahedron. Lastly, the most complicated solid, the dodecahedron – itself made up of composite regular polygons – was associated with the makeup of the constellations and the Heavens themselves, their workings said to be unfathomable by human minds (Ball, 2004). His student, Aristotle, ran with this idea and devised a clever way to break up the elements based on their "qualities”, akin to a first periodic table. These binary roles were hot and cold, wet and dry, with an element containing just two of these qualities each. According to Aristotle, each of these elements could be converted to the other by inverting one of their qualities, seemingly bringing about an early form of alchemy. To these four elements, he also appended a fifth - aether or “pure air” - to fill the expanses of the heavens, which also became associated with the fifth Platonic solid. In the Western World, Aristotle’s word was taken as doctrine for a very long time owing greatly to the fall of Rome and the cultural instability thereafter. Where Europe plummeted into the Dark Ages with a reverence for the scholars of antiquity, scientific and literary endeavour flourished in the Middle East – the word alchemy itself having etymologically Arabic roots. It was not until the late 17th century that the likes of Galileo, Newton, and Descartes revived Western scientific pursuit, and sought to understand how the natural world arranged itself. In the 18th century, new discoveries were being made on the frontiers of science in major cities throughout Europe. In 1772, in Paris, Antoine Lavoisier began work on combustion of materials like phosphorus and sulphur. Lavoisier concluded that if something decomposes into simpler substances, then it is not an element. For example, while water can be turned into a gas when passed over hot iron and is therefore not an element, oxygen and hydrogen are indeed elemental. English chemist John Dalton took after Lavoisier and in 1808 began to arrange elements spatially into a chart, accounting for their various properties. In Strasbourg 1827, Wolfgang Döbereiner recognised that groups of threes arose from the list of elements which behaved similarly, known as “Döbereiner's triads" (Free Animated Education, 2023). John Newlands in 1866 put forward the “Law of Octaves”. Elements with similar properties ended up at regular intervals, dividing the elements into seven groups of eight – hence octaves. However, this method of dividing up the elements broke down in some special cases. Now turning to St. Petersburg, Russia, in February of 1869. Dmitri Mendeleev sits at his desk, with a mess of cards covering the surface of his working space. The professor of chemistry rearranges these elemental cards like a jigsaw puzzle, arranging and rearranging them to align them in accordance with their properties. Supposedly after coming to him in a dream, a pattern emerged. Mendeleev saw the ability for the simple tabulation of the elements based on their atomic number and hence their common properties. This newfound tool, based on Lavoisier’s work a century prior, allowed for the prediction of properties of elements which had not even been discovered yet. Elements which Mendeleev believed to exist, even though they presented as empty gaps in the grid structure of the periodic table. Within just twenty years, Mendeleev’s prediction of the existence of such elements like gallium, scandium, and germanium had been validated with experimental fact. All of this was predicted without knowledge of the true reason for similarities of elemental properties – the electron shell arrangement at a subatomic level. Mendeleev had totally changed the way chemists viewed their discipline and has been immortalised for perhaps the greatest breakthrough work in the history of chemistry (Rouvray, 2019). Today we recognise that all the elements in the universe have origins in the high-pressure hearts of stars. Like a hot furnace, they churn out heavier and heavier elements under their immense internal pressures. Once this life cycle comes to an end, the star erupts into a fiery supernova, releasing even more of the heavier elements we see further down the periodic table. In the last 75 years, scientists have added an additional 24 elements to the periodic table, some of which are so difficult to produce that their half-lives last only a few fractions of a millisecond before decaying away to nothing (Charley, 2012). This begs the question; how do we find new elements? Elements can be created via either fission, splitting apart a heavier atom, or fusion, binding two bodies of atoms together. The heavier an element, that is, the more protons and neutrons in its nucleus, the more unstable it is. Hence it is with great difficulty that scientists attempt to churn out new elements from large particle accelerators, by colliding and combining elements into new ones (Chheda, 2023). The story of physical matter is just one aspect in the search for what “everything” is made of. Dark matter and dark energy – so named because they do not interact with light – have been found to drive the expansion of the universe and the rotation speeds of galaxies. We know remarkably little about these substances, given that they make up around 95% of the total mass of the universe! Without a doubt, we have only just begun the journey to find out what makes up the universe around us. References Chheda, R. (2023, March 31). Can we add new elements to the periodic table? Science ABC. https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/can-we-add-new-elements-to-the-periodic-table.html Charley, S. (2012). How to make an element. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/insidenova/2012/01/how-to-make-an-element.html Free Animated Education. (2023, February 10). Perfecting the periodic table [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7tbMGKGgCRA&ab_channel=FreeAnimatedEducation Jefferson Lab. (2012, November 20). The origin of the elements [Video]. YouTube. Ball, P. (2004). The elements: A very short introduction . Oxford University Press. Mee, N. (2020). Earth, air, fire, and water. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 16–23). https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851950.003.0003 Rouvray, D. (2019). Dmitri Mendeleev. New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/people/dmitri-mendeleev Previous article Next article Elemental back to

< Back to Issue 9 Axolotl: The Little God of the Lake by Danny He 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Saraf Ishman Edited by Ciara Dahl Creation “When the fifth sun was created, it did not move. The god of the wind carved a destructive path through the realm, slaying all other gods to induce the Sun into movement. Xolotl, guide for the dead, escaped his sacrifice by transforming into an invulnerable salamander. Eventually, even he was captured. Upon his sacrifice, the Sun began its course. Thus began the time of man.” - Author’s creative interpretation of Aztec mythology. The otherworldly biology of the axolotl ( Ambystoma mexicanum) attracted fascination among the Aztecs, who named it after the god of fire and lightning (1). They believed the shapeshifting god Xolotl took many forms, from a chimera depicted as a dog-headed man, to a skeleton, to a deformed monster with reversed feet (1). He was a renowned shapeshifter who would guide the dead on their journey to the afterlife (1). Centuries on, the axolotl would transform from a feared deity to a beloved icon and subject of scientific marvel. Fascination “Auguste Dumeril lounged by the lake. The humidity of Lake Xochimilco was beginning to take its toll. He had recently been informed of a marvellous reptile, one that resided exclusively in the canals of ancient Aztec, capable of regrowing limbs and organs including its brain. He wondered of the scientific possibilities of studying such a creature. A self-regenerating invertebrate could fascinate the scientific community and make wonderful contributions to medicine. This creature is to be taken back home to Paris” - Imaging a day with French Zoologist August Dumeril. The axolotl exhibits many biological peculiarities. Cousin of the tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum) , it has evolved over millions of years to take advantage of the bountiful resources of the Mexican basins (2). It remains in its juvenile, tadpole-like form throughout its adulthood, retaining its gills and breathing through its skin (2). The animal’s near perfect regeneration and its potential application for medical research fascinated scientists. French zoologist Auguste Dumeril was the first to conduct research on the axolotl after discovering it during his expedition to Mexico (3). Decades later, proteins were discovered which enabled the miraculous processes of complete, scar-free regeneration of an injured axolotl (4). Scientists continue to research methods in which the axolotl’s regeneration can facilitate trauma care and cancer research (4, 5). Conservation “Pedro set his spade down, straw hat clutched close to his chest. His eyes fixated on the water before him. Just below the surface, he had thought something had moved along the river bank. It had been many years since he had last seen an axolotl. The Méndez Rosas had been working as Chinamperos for generations. The axolotl had been a welcome sight for his forefathers, now it is a sign of hope for Lake Xochilmilco.” - an interview with Pedro, a 7th generation Chinamperos (7). Chinampas are large man-made farming islands created by the Aztecs (6). The capital city was built upon an island on a vast lake using a series of complex canals to prevent their city from flooding (6). Chinamperos use the lake's nutrient-rich soil to grow crops and create a self-sustaining system resilient to pests and disease (6). Productive chinampas ensure greater food security for Mexico City. A perfect symbiosis between water and land, a healthy chinampa cannot be without a healthy body of water (6). As chinampas grow they become refuge for wildlife such as the axolotl (6). As axolotls breathe through their skin, their presence indicates excellent water quality and hence a healthy chinampa (6). However, this once thriving ecosystem is now under threat from urbanisation. Drainage of the lake has resulted in the range of chinampas being limited to Lake Xochilmilco (6). Pollution and climate change has altered the landscape, while expansion of the city has resulted in the loss of precious wetlands (6). These changes have driven axolotls to critical endangerment. A once venerated and sacred creature has been neglected and buried by the relentless incursion of human civilisation (6). It is now a race against time to save the wild axolotls as few remain in Lake Xochilmilco (2). As urbanisation continues to bear down upon the chinampas, calls have been made to protect these dwindling areas of refuge (2). The fate of the axolotl is yet to be determined, but it is certain that the loss of another species will continue to set a dangerous precedent for the conservation of our ecosystems. Aztec mythology describes the god represented by the axolotl as the caretaker of his underworld kingdom and a guide for lost souls (1). Perhaps it is now important for us to take care of the axolotl as Xolotl has taken care of us. References Spence L. Mexico and Peru [Internet]. Senate; 1994. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://archive.org/details/mexicoperu00spen The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Axolotl. Britannica . July 20, 1998. Updated 27 August, 2025. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/animal/axolotl Reiß C. Cut and Paste: The Mexican Axolotl, Experimental Practices and the Long History of Regeneration Research in Amphibians, 1864-Present. Front Cell Dev Biol . 2022;10:786533. doi:10.3389/fcell.2022.786533 Huang L, Ho C, Ye X, Gao Y, Guo W, Chen J, et al. Mechanisms and translational applications of regeneration in limbs: From renewable animals to humans. Ann Anat . 2024;255:152288. doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2024.152288 Suleiman S, Schembri-Wismayer P, Calleja-Agius J. The axolotl model for cancer research: a mini-review. J BUON . 2019;24(6):2227–31. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338630505_The_axolotl_model_for_cancer_research_a_mini-review The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chinampa. Encyclopaedia Britannica . July 20, 1998. Updated 26 May, 2017. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/chinampa Nature on PBS. Wild axolotls are being saved by... nuns and Aztec gardens? | WILD HOPE. Youtube. September 12, 2023. Accessed September 29, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NL0ad3jBWRI&t=808s Previous article Next article Entwined back to