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< Back to Issue 5 Griefbots: A New Way to Grieve (or Not) Akanksha Agarwal 24 October 2023 Edited by Celina Kumala Illustrated by Louise Cen Trigger warning: This article mentions themes of death or dying. If at any point the content is distressing, please reach out for support via Griefline or refer to the services listed at the end of this article. Rumi once wrote, ‘Anything you lose comes round in another form.’ (Goodreads, n.d., p. 1). There are many ritualistic ways to memorialise the death of a loved one, but what if they had never “died”? Over the past decade, the intersection of technology and mental health has given rise to innovative solutions for various psychological conditions. From virtual reality therapy for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (Kothgassner et al., 2019) to prescription video games aimed at helping children manage Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Tiitto & Lodder, 2017), the mental health technology industry has expanded significantly. Enter, a recent addition to this landscape - the grief bot. In 2015, Roman Mazurenko, an entrepreneur and prominent figure in Moscow’s night-life scene, suddenly passed away from a fatal car accident (Newton, 2016). His close friend, Eugenia Kuyda, proceeded to create a “digital monument” in his memory (Newton, 2016). While grieving, she found herself re-reading all his old messages, feeling nostalgic at Roman’s unique word choices, and spelling. Kuyda had previously founded a startup involving artificially intelligent chat bots. After the incident, she fed her bot with Roman’s text exchanges. The bot then adopted Roman’s speech pattern, enabling her to chat with a version of him. This marked the birth of the griefbots, or chat bots programmed using digital remains (emails, text messages, social media posts) of a deceased individual to support their grieving loved ones. In other words, using natural language processing, these bots are able to mimic conversational patterns using the data of the deceased. Are these conversational patterns accurate? How then, does this impact the way we grieve? Should we even be using griefbots? To answer these, we could attempt to understand grief. Grief is a complex emotion. You could be grieving the loss of a loved one, a relationship, an object, or even an abstract idea (e.g. familiarity). Grief can also manifest at different times for each individual. According to the Australian Psychological Society ‘grief is the natural response to loss and can influence the physical, emotional, cognitive, behavioural and spiritual aspects of our lives.’ (APS, n.d, p. 1). In their book, Elizabeth Kubler-Ross and David Kessel (2014) coined ‘The Five Stages of Grief: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance. Essentially, the model suggests an initial reaction of symbolic denial or shock. Following this is typically a phase of emotional support through vocalising the experience or making meaning. The final stage being acceptance, or moving forward. “Are they really gone?” Denial is viewed as a protective mechanism to meet the psyche where it is. “Why me?” Anger is interestingly framed as an anchor to connect you to someone you’ve lost. “What if they suddenly return?” Bargaining shifts from the past to the future, until the truth sinks in. “What’s the point?” Depression is protecting the nervous system from overload, and is arguably natural to grief, when not clinical. “I lost them, but I am going to be okay.” Acceptance as you start to move forward, with some stability. Now, each of these questions might manifest in different ways, and require different coping mechanisms. However, they do give us an indication of generic phases across unique manifestations of grief. In other words, these are not linear, clear-cut stages, rather, there is an element of individuality in the way we experience each stage. We might experience one stage before another, or circle back, or take a completely new route. In any case, this is one way to make sense of grief. Other theories around grief include Bowlby’s attachment theory (1980) which suggests that our response to losing someone is coded in the way our attachments develop. Silverman and Klass (1996) put forth the idea of continuing bonds, where the meaning of loss changes with the deceased living on in memory. On the other hand, Strobe and Schut (1999) posit a dual process with individuals constantly switching from avoidance or confrontation of loss. Regardless of your theoretical inclinations, chances are that one might seek closure, a sense of reconciliation or even self-fulfilment after experiencing loss. What, then, would be the wellbeing impacts of artificial chat bots, that are designed to adopt the language patterns of those we have lost, on the grieving process? Grief can result in cognitive changes, such as confusion, identity disturbances, dysphoria, and yearning among others (Bonnano & Kaltman, 2001). Norlock (2016) proposes that imaginal relationships with the deceased can reflect relational value, ethical behaviour (such as forgiveness), and relationship maintenance. Furthermore, it is argued that continued internal representations of people who have passed away might also add value to future relationships. In contrast, some may argue that interacting with an artificial grief bot might engender para-social relationships where the user is investing time into a relationship (Vost & Kamp, 2022); however, the receipt is unaware (similar to celebrities and their fans). Furthermore, anthropomorphising a non-living chatbot, and conflating this for a person might distort reality, take wrongful advice, delay grief, or fabricate new false memories (Vost & Kamp, 2022). It leads one to wonder, just what are the potential ethical issues surrounding griefbots? Data is impermanent, with the ability to be wiped (Grandinetti et al., 2020). Data is deeply contextual, contingent, and unstable (Grandinetti et al., 2020). In order to understand how the bot is responding, ensuring no advice is given, and also preserving the griever’s best interest, is a complex task. Moreover, viewing griefbots as permanent or true representations of the dead is another issue. There are also ethical questions around consent and whether the deceased are capable of giving consent to the usage of their data, along with users. Whether companies can be transparent about how the data is being handled, and the algorithms generated, remains unclear. Would knowing how the responses were generated changed the way people viewed grief bots, and would that defeat the purpose? Yet, there are broader challenges. If users disclose private information to profit-driven companies based on the trust with the person they have lost, the data could be misused. The role of protection plans in the event of deep fakers or hackers, becomes paramount. The large amount of data used also raises questions about the sustainability of such bots. Additionally, the high cost of sophisticated bots might create greater disparities in access to support. While autonomy may improve with access to immediate technology, the addictive interaction patterns could lead to dependence, overuse, and potentially social withdrawal. Furthermore, gender, age, sensitive content, changing political landscapes, might potentially bias the bot inherently. Griefbots remain a hotly contested topic, with widespread caution surrounding potential impacts. There have been attempts to design similar bots with ethical features in mind, and even suggestions to medically regulate or test such devices. However, this use for AI bots opens up a multitude of questions. By 2025, Vorst and Kamp (2022) speculate that holographic avatars could be generated through photographs, physical and digital remnants, even voice recordings. Ultimately, the impact of griefbots on our perception of mortality and memory challenges us to reconsider the boundaries of life, death, and the enduring essence of human connection in a digital age. Support resources If you are experiencing prolonged symptoms of grief or depression, please seek support via the following resources with different options for support: Grief Australia: counselling services, support groups, app https://www.grief.org.au/ga/ga/Get-Support.aspx?hkey=2876868e-8666-4ed2-a6a5-3d0ee6e86c30 Griefline: free telephone support, community forum and support groups https://griefline.org.au/ Better Health Channel: coping strategies, list of support services, education on grief https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/servicesandsupport/grief Beyond Blue: understanding grief, resources, support, counselling https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/grief-and-loss Lifeline: real stories, techniques & strategies, apps & tools, support guides, interactive https://toolkit.lifeline.org.au/topics/grief-loss/what-is-grief?gclid=CjwKCAjw-KipBhBtEiwAWjgwrE1pJaaBabh3pT_UR0PlVBZTFMEA26NVJe2ue8sqCF0BLg2rMI4i2xoCp5IQAvD_BwE Reach Out Australia: coping strategies https://au.reachout.com/articles/working-through-grief?gclid=CjwKCAjw-KipBhBtEiwAWjgwrKXLb9w-wXXVLIbhZDkPumIF6ebe-0Pk77Hv7-cK4dLDrHJxCRkyRBoC2B4QAvD_BwE Find a Helpline: for international/country-specific helplines https://findahelpline.com/ This list is not exhaustive, please refer to your area’s specific services for additional support. References Albert, S., & Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Sadness and depression . Journal of Marriage and the Family , 44(1), 248. https://doi.org/10.2307/351282 APS. (n.d.). Grief | APS . Australian Psychological Society | APS. https://psychology.org.au/for-the-public/psychology-topics/grief Basom, J. (2021, May 19). The ethical, social, and political implications of “Griefbots”. Medium . https://jonathanb108.medium.com/the-ethical-social-and-political-implications-of-griefbots-48780fd1d1c2 Bonanno, G. A., & Kaltman, S. (2001). The varieties of grief experience . Clinical Psychology Review , 21(5), 705-734. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-7358(00)00062-3 Craytor, J. K., & Kubler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. The American Journal of Nursing , 69(12), 2710. https://doi.org/10.2307/3421124 Elder, A. (2019). Conversation from beyond the grave? A Neo‐confucian ethics of chatbots of the dead. Journal of Applied Philosophy , 37(1), 73-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/japp.12369 Goodreads. (n.d.). A quote by Rumi . Goodreads | Meet your next favorite book. https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/32062-don-t-grieve-anything-you-lose-comes-round-in-another-form Grandinetti, J., DeAtley, T., & Bruinsma, J. (2020). The dead speak: Big data and digitally mediated death . AoIR Selected Papers of Internet Research . https://doi.org/10.5210/spir.v2020i0.11122 Jiménez-Alonso, B., & De Luna, I. B. (2022). Correction to: Griefbots. A new way of communicating with the dead? Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-022-09687-3 Klass, D. (2021). The sociology of continuing bonds. Culture, Consolation, and Continuing Bonds in Bereavement, 113-128. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003243564-11 Kothgassner, O. D., Goreis, A., Kafka, J. X., Van Eickels, R. L., Plener, P. L., & Felnhofer, A. (2019). Virtual reality exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1654782 Kübler-Ross, E., & Kessler, D. (2014). On grief and grieving: Finding the meaning of grief through the five stages of loss. Simon & Schuster. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0TltiT8Y9CYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=grief+&ots=S1j1XyF91N&sig=pDnxX-bJQIJIFeX074oGrHRD0Ms&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=grief&f=false Lindemann, N. F. (2022). The ethics of ‘Deathbots’ . Science and Engineering Ethics , 28(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-022-00417-x Newton, C. (2016, October 6). When her best friend died, she used artificial intelligence to keep talking to him . TheVerge.com . https://www.theverge.com/a/luka-artificial-intelligence-memorial-roman-mazurenko-bot Norlock, K. J. (2016). Real (and) imaginal relationships with the dead. The Journal of Value Inquiry , 51(2), 341-356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10790-016-9573-6 Santa Clara University. (n.d.). AI, death, and mourning . https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/internet-ethics/resources/ai-death-and-mourning/ Schut, M. S. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: Rationale and description. Death Studies , 23(3), 197-224. https://doi.org/10.1080/074811899201046 Shardlow, J. (2022). Temporal perspectives and the phenomenology of grief. Review of Philosophy and Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-022-00659-5 Tiitto, M. V., & Lodder, R. A. (2017). Therapeutic Video Games for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) . WebmedCentral , 8(11). https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.10.26.355990 Van der Vorst, R., & Kamp, J. M. (2022). 12. Designing a griefbot-for-good . Moral design and technology, 215-241. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-922-0_12 Wicked back to

< Back to Issue 9 The Cosmos in Our Palms: A Reflection of Our Cosmic Origins by Mishen De Silva 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Heather Sutherland Edited by Nirali Bhagat The Stars and I As I lay down, head held up high, I open my eyes to the Stars and I. In silent dominion, sits the adorned sky, Scattered patterns and celestine fortresses, Locked behind veils of gas, dust and time. Where do I stand, between the Stars and I? Separated by infinities, Yet entranced by familiarity, Perhaps the Stars and I are not as different as I thought. Iron cladded blood, calcium forged bones, carbon cells, Myself, an echo to a stellar memory. What lies between the Stars and I? Long before breath touched my lungs, Fire forged my heart, And light filled my eyes, I was written in the same primordial script, Of matter and light. Seven more lines to which I exist, As a witness and whisper to our shared cosmic thread. A child of the sky, A memory, dreaming of itself, Who am I, but both the Stars and I. The universe first learned to know itself, I second, Where could it have all begun, between the Stars and I? Origins of Cosmic Matter To understand this profound connection between us and the cosmos, we must trace back 13.8 billion years to the birth of matter itself. The complex matter which encapsulates our very existence stems from one crucial cosmic event, the Big Bang (1). In this moment, hydrogen and helium were formed and became the building blocks to the universe. In the early stages of our universe forming, seas of hydrogen and helium gas were pulled by gravity to create stars, in an event known as gravitational collapse (2). These stars became the furnaces for existence. As spheres of fire, they fused atoms together to create more complex ones. This is known as stellar nucleosynthesis, where stars form heavier elements, such as carbon, calcium, nitrogen, oxygen and iron, through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen and helium (3). As time goes on, the core of a star collapses in on itself, creating a supernova. A supernova is an explosion of unimaginable heat, which is crucial in forming all the elements heavier than iron (1). In its lifetime, a star transmutes what was once darkness and barren, into a seed of complex matter. In death, they scatter the elements of their creation across the cosmos, planting them in vast fields of space, from which new stars ignite, planets take form, and life may slowly emerge (3). Through this, we can begin to appreciate our existence as something far greater than ourselves, where the iron in our blood, calcium in our bones and carbon in our cells were all created long before Earth even existed. Life on Earth As the clouds of gas and dust from countless stellar generations drift through the galaxy, they soon clump together to form planetesimals, in a process known as accretion (4). Planetesimals are small, icy and rocky cosmic bodies, which collide together to form planets (4). The planetesimals which collided and merged to form a young Earth made an environment rich with the ingredients to create life. Over eons, elements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus have worked together to create the complex chemistries we see on Earth (5). The same elements, once inside stars, became crucial hallmarks for organic life: carbon forms the backbone of DNA and protein, nitrogen is essential for amino acids, oxygen supports respiration, and phosphorus forms our energy molecules, ATP (6). In this way, every organism before us, from microscopic bacteria, to the fleeting fruit fly, across the vastness of a whale, to the depth of a human soul, were all forged in the fire of the stars. As we detangle the web of our cosmic origins, we can begin to view our existence not only as entwined with every being around us, but also a direct continuation of the cosmos and its evolution. Figure 1. Elements found in stars which make up our body (7) The Cycle of Return It is important to recognise that this cosmic history does not end with us. Matter and energy are never lost, only transformed to take on new forms. An example of this is the carbon cycle, where carbon atoms are continuously moving and taking on new forms in the atmosphere, land and oceans (8). Through death and decay, in between birth and being, our physical selves become part of the soil, water and air, being reused by plants and other organisms to create new biological cycles (9). Similar to the impermanence of our existence, the Earth too will not last forever. Just like any star, our Sun will eventually exhaust the hydrogen in its core, swelling into a giant inferno consuming our world with it (10). However, this is not the end we think it is. Over eons, through supernovae and stellar collisions, the elements to our origins of life will be scattered across different depths of space, perhaps forming new stars, planets or even life elsewhere (11). Figure 2. The Carbon Cycle (12) In the present, each organism, cell and breath of life, exists as an homage to the universe’s constant transformation and reorganisation into new forms. With each howl of a dog, cry of a baby and rustle of a tree, we all exist under a profound and truly out of this world connection. A part of a much bigger cycle, the matter which formed the stars, which created the elements giving rise to life on Earth, will one day become something new again. And so, the more we examine this complex cycle, the more we can dissolve the distance between the “Stars and I”. We were never separate from the stars, and the cosmos is no longer just ‘out there’; it is something within us, around us, and inextricably mixed with who we fundamentally are. References Muhammad, T. Why We’re All Made of Star Dust. Science News Today [Internet]. 2025 May [cited 2025 Oct 8]. Available from: https://www.sciencenewstoday.org/why-were-all-made-of-star-dust Lineweaver, C.H., Egan, C.A. Life, gravity and the second law of thermodynamics. Physics of Life Reviews. 2008;5(4): 225–242. doi: 10.1016/j.plrev.2008.08.002 Fox, R. F. Origin of Life and Energy. Encyclopedia of Energy . 2004:781–792. doi: 10.1016/b0-12-176480-x/00054-1 Halliday, A. N., Canup, R. M. The accretion of planet Earth. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment . 2022;4:1–17. doi: 10.1038/s43017-022-00370-0 The origin of life: The conditions that sparked life on Earth. Research Outreach [Internet]. 2019 Dec [cited 2025 Oct 8]. Available from: https://researchoutreach.org/articles/origin-life-conditions-sparked-life-earth/ Remick, K. A., Helmann, J. D. The elements of life: A biocentric tour of the periodic table. Advances in Microbial Physiology. 2023;82:1–127. doi: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2022.11.001 Lotzof, K. Are we really made of stardust? Natural History Museum [Internet]. [cited 2025 Oct 8]. Available from: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/are-we-really-made-of-stardust.html Pulselli, F. M. Global Warming Potential and the Net Carbon Balance. Encyclopedia of Ecology. 2008:1741–1746. doi: /10.1016/b978-008045405-4.00112-9 Huang, T., Hu, Q., Shen, Y., Anglés, A., Fernández-Remolar, D. C. Biogeochemical Cycles. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. 2024;6:393–407. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-822562-2.00347-9 Staff, A. What will happen to the planets when the Sun becomes a red giant? Astronomy Magazine [Internet]. 2020 Sep [cited 2025 Oct 8]. Available from: https://www.astronomy.com/observing/what-will-happen-to-the-planets-when-the-sun-becomes-a-red-giant/ Betz, E. How will life on Earth end? Astronomy Magazine [Internet]. 2023 Aug [cited 2025 Oct 8]. Available from: https://www.astronomy.com/science/how-will-life-on-earth-end/ Sultan, H., Li, Y., Ahmed, W., Shah, A., Faizan, M., Ahmad, A., Nie, L., Yixue, M., & Khan, M. N. (2024). Biochar and nano biochar: Enhancing salt resilience in plants and soil while mitigating greenhouse gas emissions: A comprehensive review. Journal of Environmental Management. 2024; 355 :120448–120448. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120448 Previous article Next article Entwined back to

Issue 2: Disorder 10 December 2021 A few words on (Dis)Order! Sophia, Maya, Patrick and Felicity A few words on (Dis)Order! Columns Top Stories Maxing the Vax: why some countries are losing the COVID vaccination race Grace Law This piece discusses key challenges faced by some countries in increasing their rates of getting the jab. Chatter Tactile communication: how touch conveys the things we can’t say Lily McCann Our daily dose of touch has decreased through months of lockdowns. But why is touch so important to us, and why do we feel the lack of it so severely? The Body, Et Cetera Hiccups Rachel Ko Evolution might be a theory, but if it’s evidence you’re after, there’s no need to look further than your own body. From the column that brought you a deep-dive into ear wiggling in Issue 1, here’s an exploration of why we hiccup! Humans of UniMelb Postdoc Possibilities Renee Papaluca Thinking about postgraduate research? This column has some advice for you, courtesy of a recent PhD graduate. Cinema to Reality Building the Lightsaber Manthila Ranatunga Some of the most iconic movie gadgets are the oldest ones. For this issue we look at how the lightsaber was brought to life. Features Making sense of the senses: The 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Dominika Pasztetnik What do spicy food, menthol lozenges and walking around blindfolded have in common? They all activate protein receptors, newly discovered by 2021 Nobel Prize winners. Law and Order: Medically Supervised Injecting Centres Caitlin Kane Keeping people safe from the harms of drug use is an important public health goal, but some question the value of medically supervised injecting centres in improving health and community outcomes. Spirituality and Science Hamish Payne Common thinking is that science is a rigid, cold and largely academic field which sneers at the domain of spirituality. I posit that one must move beyond this point of view in order to do good science, and to find the true aims and values of the discipline. Hidden Worlds: a peek into the nanoscale using helium ion microscopy Erin Grant How do scientists zoom further in than the typical optical microscope? Through the helium ion microscope – revealing beauty that at scales too small to imagine! Man-Made Science: On the Origins of the Gender Gap Mia Horsfall Scientific practice remains doused in centuries of unreasoned discrimination against women. But what is the best way to unravel the complexities of such an intricate web of injustice, intellectual theft and suffering? What’s the forecast for smallholder farmers of Arabica coffee? Hannah Savage Changing weather patterns are threatening the livelihoods of smallholder Arabica coffee bean farmers in rural East Timor and Ethiopia. How will dramatically reduced global coffee yields touch Melbourne’s privileged cafe culture? Discovery, Blue Skies... and Partisan Bickering? Andrew Lim Journeying from Cambridge, Massachusetts to Melbourne, Australia, this feature ponders over deadlocked bills, economic mandates and the era of the scientist-politician, considering science in the age of politics. The Evolution of Science Communication Monica Blasioli With social media users in now having far more power over content posted online than before, how does this impact the information which others receive about the COVID-19 pandemic? How to use a time machine Sabine Elias Whilst time travel is thought to be nothing more than science fiction, the very laws of physics point to its possibility. From rockets to wormholes, physicists have long sought the answer to such a phenomenon. Mastering Chaos with Pen and Paper Xen Papailiadis Drawing upon physics and meteorology, the mathematical laws which govern our chaotic and complex universe have found special use in describing the rapidly changing global climate.

Our Microbial Frenemies By Wei Han Chong How could it be that some of the smallest organisms known to mankind can hold so much influence and cause such calamity in our lives? The significance of these microorganisms have long eluded the greatest microbiologists. But has our perception of these microbes blinded us to their advantages, if any? Edited by Khoa Anh Tran & Tanya Kovacevic Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Rachel Ko Throughout human history, diseases and plagues have amassed death tolls reaching hundreds of millions, if not billions. From the Black Death in the 14th century, which killed about 200 million people, or about 30–50% of Europe’s population, to outbreaks of tuberculosis and typhoid fever, resulting in 1.4 million and 200,000 deaths every year, respectively (1, 2, 3). It should come as no surprise then that we have long perceived these microorganisms as a threat to public health and have consequently sought to eradicate these microbes from our environment. But have we been looking at them the wrong way? First and foremost, we know very little about the microorganisms living around us. In bacterial species alone, some scientists have estimated around a billion species worldwide, though even this value is believed to be a gross underestimation (4). Before the germ theory, the most widely accepted theories were the spontaneous generation and miasma theories. Spontaneous generation was a simple theory, believing that living organisms could develop from nonliving matter, such as maggots developing from rotting flesh. The miasma theory, on the other hand, was more prevalent throughout both ancient and modern history. From this perspective, “toxic” vapours from rotting organisms or unsanitary locations were believed to have caused disease (5). This all changed with the germ theory of disease: an idea that would revolutionise our understanding of microorganisms for centuries to come. First theorised as “invisible seeds” by Italian scholar Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546, Fracastoro believed that these seeds could cause disease when spread from infected to healthy individuals (6). For the most part, the basis of the germ theory would continue to follow this logic of a specific microorganism, a “germ”, that could cause a specific disease when invading its host (7). Yet, it was not until nearly 200 years later that the field of microbiology would see huge developments. In 1861, French scientist Louis Pasteur had disproved the spontaneous generation theory by means of sterilisation and proper sealing of food items, which would prevent microbial growth (8). However, Louis Pasteur would not be the only one contributing to developments in microbiology. In 1884, German scientist Robert Koch would be the first to develop a classification system for establishing a causative relationship between a microorganism and its respective disease, effectively confirming the germ theory of disease (9). Even to this day, Koch’s system is still very much influential in microbial pathogenesis, albeit refined to a higher standard. Now known as Koch’s Molecular Postulates — as opposed to Koch’s Original Postulates — which is a model that places a greater emphasis on the virulence genes causing disease, rather than the microorganism itself (10). Today, while we have much to thank Pasteur and Koch for in laying the foundation of modern microbiology, undoubtedly one of the biggest discoveries in microbiology was the discovery of the human microbiota. When we think of microbial life, we usually think of diseases and plagues, cleanliness and dirtiness. Rarely do we ever consider the idea of microbes living inside and around us. Yet, even less so can we begin to comprehend the sheer number of microorganisms that live and proliferate all around ourselves. In our gastrointestinal tract, estimates suggest that there are some 100 trillion microorganisms encoding three million genes altogether, which is 130 times more than what we encode ourselves (11). Figure 1. Microbes in Food (25) So, what do we know about the microbiota; specifically, our microbiota? Firstly, we know that the microorganisms occupying our gut do not cause disease, under normal circumstances. Secondly, we know that they can provide us with a multitude of benefits, such as helping us digest complex organic molecules, and preventing invasion of foreign microbes by directly competing for resources and keeping the immune system stimulated. These are just a few of the advantages our microbial allies provide us. However, that is not to say that they pose no danger to ourselves either. Typically, these microorganisms are categorised into being in a beneficial, pathogenic or commensal relationship with its host. Beneficial microbes, or probiotics, are as the name suggests: these microbes typically provide some form of health benefit to the host and are usually non-pathogenic. Many of the bacterial species found in our gut lumen, for example, have the capability to digest cellulose. As such, without these microbes, digesting vegetables would be a much harder and less rewarding task. Most of the probiotics found in our microflora are of lactic acid bacteria origin and are most common in diets that incorporate fermented dairy products (12). Pathogenic microbes, on the other hand, mostly describe microbes of foreign origin. These microorganisms will infect and exploit the host’s cells, ultimately causing disease. Commensal microorganisms walk an interesting line, in comparison to beneficial and pathogenic microbes. This group of microbes encompasses all of the characteristics described above, depending on circumstance. This ranges from benefiting both the host and microbe, the microbe itself, or even causing disease within its host when given the opportunity. An example of a commensal microorganism is Escherichia coli, or E. coli. It is a bacterium that colonises our gastrointestinal tract as soon as we are born, where it fends off more than 500 competing bacteria species, thanks to its versatility and adaptations to our gut environment (13). Furthermore, the presence of E. coli along our gut epithelium helps to stimulate mucin production, inhibiting any foreign microbes from invading the epithelium (14). However, as is typical of a commensal organism, when given the chance, E. coli is capable of causing intestinal or extraintestinal disease in our bodies. Urinary tract infections due to E. coli are among the most common causes of a microflora-associated infection and often occur when the bacterium is allowed to enter the urinary tract via cross contamination with the anus, where E. coli is typically shed as part of the faeces (15). Typically, these beneficial and commensal bacteria are found all over our body. They can be found in our hair, on our skin, and as we have discussed, in our gut. Malassezia, for example, is a fungus that colonises our scalp, and is what causes dandruff in most people. While dandruff may be a nuisance to those who experience it, do the disadvantages necessarily outweigh the benefits? The presence of Malassezia on our scalps means that other, possibly dangerous, microorganisms will have to compete with Malassezia in order to invade. Additionally, the stimulation of our body’s defenses due to Malassezia aids in repelling foreign invaders (16). Staphylococcus aureus is another example of a commensal microbe, and an even better example of an opportunistic pathogen that can be found living harmoniously on our skin and nasal passages, helping us fend off other competing microbes just as Malassezia does on our scalp. However, when the skin is pierced, whether by means of injury or even medically through surgeries or treatments, the Staphylococcus bacteria will opportunistically attempt to invade and infect its host (17). As such, Staph infections and outbreaks are among some of the most common forms of hospital-related infections (18). Source: Thomas L Dawson, “What causes dandruff, and how do you get rid of it?” February 10, 2021, Ted-Ed video (19). Looking to the future, we have begun to see a spike in non-communicable diseases as opposed to microorganism-based diseases. These include most forms of heart diseases, cancers, diabetes, and others. Still, while the rise of non-communicable diseases is arguably a cause for concern, the return of long extinct diseases and antibiotic resistant pathogens may prove costly. Staph infections, as previously mentioned, are extremely common in hospital environments where continued usage of antibiotics such as penicillin or methicillin has produced a “super strain” of Staphylococcus that is resistant to most commercially available drugs (20). Currently, superbugs such as multidrug-resistant mycobacterium tuberculosis and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are most common in healthcare settings, but community transmissions have become a concern (21). As such, with our current practices of antibiotic overprescriptions and continued reliance on sterilisation, future outbreaks of mutated and resistant pathogens may be inevitable. That being said, should we redefine what “clean and sterile” means to us? Should “sterile” necessarily be a microbe-free environment? Our perception of microbial life has consistently been “antibacterial” and believed to have been a threat to public health ever since the inception of the germ theory. However, the fact of the matter is that these microorganisms are unavoidable. There are microorganisms living all over us. Our fingers, our phones, even the soles on our shoes carry certain microorganisms. In hospital rooms, the composition of microbes is constantly changing as patients and visitors enter and leave (22). Besides, the composition of microbes in the environment is not determined solely by its occupants. Other factors, such as ventilation and even architecture, can determine what microbes we find in our environment. In fact, hospital rooms with more airflow and humidity were found to have suppressed the growth of potential pathogens and had fewer human-associated bacteria in its microbial composition (23). Just as the microbe composition in the environment can be determined by architectural and building factors, the microbe composition in our microflora can hold incredible influence over our physiology. Dysbiosis, an imbalance in our microflora, can occur as a result of repeated consumption of antibiotics, and it is a serious illness resulting in a significant loss of beneficial and commensal microbes (24). Consequently, invasion and colonisation capabilities of foreign pathogens is increased; as has been shown in antibiotic-treated mice exposed to M. tuberculosis, where pathogenic colonisation was promoted when in a dysbiotic state (25). Other factors, such as diet and lifestyle, also contribute as “disturbance” factors that influence dysbiosis, as can be seen in typical Western-style diets that mostly consist of high fatty and sugary foods (26). In the future, while the crises of pandemics originating from drug-resistant superbugs loom over us, our understanding of microbial life has come far; from its humble beginnings as a rejected theory amongst scholars, to the discovery of an extensive microbial ecosystem inside of our guts. Despite that, our comprehension of this “hidden world” remains lacking, and we have yet to fully realise the potential of microbial life. Throughout history we have constantly taken an antimicrobial stance to preserve public health, but in recent times it has become increasingly clear that these microorganisms play a much greater role in health. References: 1. LePan, Nicholas. “Visualizing the History of Pandemics.” Visual Capitalist. Last modified September 2021. https://www.visualcapitalist.com/history-of-pandemics-deadliest/ . 2. World Health Organization. “Tuberculosis.” Published October 2020. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis . 3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Typhoid Fever and Paratyphoid Fever.” Last modified March 2021. https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/health-professional.html . 4. Dykhuizen, Daniel. “Species Numbers in Bacteria.” Supplement, Proceedings. California Academy of Science 56, no. S6 (2005): 62-71. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3160642/ . 5. Kannadan, Ajesh. “History of the Miasma Theory of Disease.” ESSAI 16, no. 1 (2018): 41-43. https://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol16/iss1/18/ . 6, 8. Greenwood, Michael. “History of Microbiology – Germ Theory and Immunity.” News-Medical. Last modified May 2020. https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/History-of-Microbiology-e28093-Germ-Theory-and-Immunity.aspx . 7. Britannica. “Germ theory.” Last modified April 2020. https://www.britannica.com/science/germ-theory . 9, 10. Gradmann, Christoph. “A spirit of scientific rigour: Koch’s postulates in twentieth-century medicine.” Microbes and Infection 16, no. 11 (2014): 885-892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2014.08.012 . 11. Valdes, Ana M, Jens Walter, Eran Segal, and Tim D Spector. “Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health.” BMJ 361, no. k2179 (2018): 36-44. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2179 . 12, 24. Martín, Rebeca, Sylvie Miquel, Jonathan Ulmer, Noura Kechaou, Philippe Langella, and Luis G Bermúdez-Humarán. “Role of commensal and probiotic bacteria in human health: a focus on inflammatory bowel disease.” Microbial Cell Factories 12, no. 71 (2013): 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2859-12-71 . 13, 15. Leimbach, Andreas, Jörg Hacker, and Ulrich Dobrindt. “E. coli as an All-rounder: The Thin Line Between Commensalism and Pathogenicity.” In Between Pathogenicity and Commensalism, edited by Ulrich Dobrindt, Jörg Hacker and Catharina Svanborg, 3-32. Springer: Berlin, 2013. 14. Libertucci, Josie, and Vincent B Young. “The role of the microbiota in infectious diseases.” Nat Microbial 4, no. 1 (2019): 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-018-0278-4 . 15. Harvard Medical School. “When urinary tract infections keep coming back.” Published September 2019. https://www.health.harvard.edu/bladder-and-bowel/when-urinary-tract-infections-keep-coming-back . 16. Saunders, Charles W, Annika Scheynius, Joseph Heitman. “Malassezia Fungi Are Specialized to Live on Skin and Associated with Dandruff, Eczema and Other Skin Diseases.” PLoS pathogens 8, no. 6 (2012): 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002701 . 17. Cogen, A. L., V. Nizet, and R. L. Gallo. “Skin microbiota: a source of disease or defence?” British journal of dermatology 158, no. 3 (2008), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08437.x . 18, 20. Klein, Eili, David L Smith, and Ramanan Laxminarayan. “Hospitalizations and Deaths Caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, United States, 1999–2005.” Emerging infectious diseases 13, no. 12 (2007): 1840-1846. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1312.070629 . 19. Dawson, Thomas L. “What causes dandruff, and how do you get rid of it?” February 10, 2021. Ted-Ed video, 5:04. https://youtu.be/x6DUOokXZAo . 21. Better Health. “Antibiotic resistant bacteria.” Last modified March 2017. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria#bhc-content . 22, 23. Arnold, Carrie. “Rethinking Sterile: The Hospital Microbiome.” Environmental health perspective 122, no. 7 (2014): A182-A187. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.122-A182 . 25. Khan, Rabia, Fernanda C Petersen, and Sudhanshu Shekhar. “Commensal Bacteria: An Emerging Player in Defense Against Respiratory Pathogens.” Frontiers in Immunology 10, no. 1 (2019): 1203-1211. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01203 . 26. Schippa, Serena, and Maria P Conte. “Dysbiotic Events in Gut Microbiota: Impact on Human Health.” Nutrients 6, no. 12 (2014): 5786-5805. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6125786 . 27. Sottek, Frank. Microbes in Food. c. 1904. The Tacoma Times, Tacoma. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sottek_cartoon_about_microbes_in_food.jpg .

Ever thought about whether we could build the Iron Man suit? We cannot replicate it exactly, but we can find some workarounds to build parts of it with currently available technology. With the exponential growth of technology, we are getting closer and closer to building the Iron Man suit. Cinema to Reality Can We Build the Iron Man Suit? By Manthila Ranatunga We see cool and fancy gadgets in movies every now and then. How can we bring them to reality? For this issue, we take a look at the Iron Man suit. Edited by Breana Galea, Ashleigh Hallinan & Tanya Kovacevic Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Gemma Van der Hurk Warning: Iron Man (2008) spoilers When Marvel Studios released Iron Man in 2008, it was all the rage among comic book fans, film geeks and engineers alike. The Iron Man suit is one of the coolest and most iconic gadgets in film history. A generation of mechatronics engineers were inspired after watching Tony Stark build the suit, myself included. Now we wonder whether we could build it with today’s technology. So, the question remains: can we build the Iron Man suit? We are talking about the Mark III suit, the gold and hot-rod red one. Unfortunately, replicating the suit is impossible; the laws of physics would not allow it. However, we can make some compromises and find some workarounds to build the suit’s most defining systems. The Power Source We can all agree the most vital part of the suit is the power source. After all, it gave Mr Stark the idea for the suit. The suit is powered by an arc reactor, which is essentially a fusion reactor (1). These produce power using nuclear fusion, the same way the sun and stars burn as enormous balls of fire. We are talking about reactions between atoms which are the building blocks of everything. Atoms contain a cluster of even smaller particles inside. Collectively they form the nucleus, so you can see where nuclear fusion comes from. Now, where are we going with this? Well, when nuclear fusion occurs, heat energy is produced (2). Nuclear fusion was chosen as the suit’s power source due to the colossal amount of energy it produces. With the palm of your hand acting as a size guide, nuclear fusion is one of the highest energy density methods available. Sounds too good to be true, right? Correct. To replicate the conditions required, a reactor would need to be heated to 150 million degrees Celsius (3) - 10 times hotter than the sun’s core! Imagine that on your chest! Unsettling, to say the least. Mr Stark’s arc reactor is self-sustaining and can power the suit for hours, or even days. But with modern technology, fusion reactors consume more energy than they produce (4). Consequently, recreating an arc reactor of the same size and energy output is currently impossible. Nevertheless, there are workarounds to create a partially functioning arc reactor. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) has been working on a fusion reactor called the ‘Alcator C-Mod’ for the past 20 years (5). Their goal has been to reduce their size while maintaining power output. Typical fusion reactor size ranges from three to nine metres in diameter, but MIT has managed to reduce theirs to about one. Assuming fusion reactors are net-positive energy producing and well heat-insulated, we can assemble the Alcator C-Mod into our own arc reactor. There are many more factors that are too complicated for us and thus we will ignore them. Instead of being placed on the chest, it can be a giant backpack! The Flight System Now, why do we need so much power? Well, the flight system consumes the bulk of it, which leads to the next point. In the movie, Iron Man flies using the repulsors on his gloves and boots. They are not gas turbines like jet engines. The suit does not carry fuel – how could it? It does not have any storage compartments. The fuel must come from outside of the suit. Here is a hint: it is everywhere, yet invisible at the same time... Air! Helicopters fly by pushing air downwards with their rotors. This works according to Isaac Newton’s third law, which states that any force will have an equal and opposite reaction. By pushing air downwards, the helicopter goes upwards. Iron Man does not have a giant rotor, so how did he solve this? Get ready for another round of physics! Repulsors use muon beams to control flight as needed. Muons are particles smaller than atoms. They exist in the Earth’s upper atmosphere (6), but can also be created at large research facilities. For now, let us assume Mr Stark has a way to produce them on his own; remember, he is a billionaire! The muon beams are ignited using plasma made by the heating of air. To produce this on-demand, the suit draws power from the arc reactor for heating and the suction of air. The repulsor beams are then created, ready for flight! Muons have a short lifespan - about a millionth of a second. In real life, muon storage is not a viable option; they must be generated on the spot. Muon creation occurs in particle accelerators (7). These are long tubes for accelerating and making particles collide at high speeds. You may have heard of the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland, a particle accelerator that is 27km long. Through efforts to miniaturise them, researchers at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory have designed one only 30 centimetres in size (8). Ignoring some laws of physics and with a few billion dollars, we can fabricate this into our own repulsors. Keep in mind - the suit’s hands and feet are smaller than 30 centimeters. Our gloves and boots will be longer and bulkier. The Future So there we have it - a semi-reasonable arc reactor and a flight system. Fun to explore the possibilities of current technology, right? But we must also consider the ethics of building such a deadly weapon. Yes - the Iron Man suit is a weapon. In the wrong hands, this technology would not be so exciting. Centuries or even decades from now, scientific breakthroughs may allow the replication of the suit. When that happens, as humans, it will be necessary to contemplate the moral consequences of such an advancement. Here we have only examined two principal systems of the suit. The rest is up to you! Traverse your mind and create your own semi-realistic Iron Man suit. As we saw here, the Iron Man suit is not far off from our time. Who knows what the future holds? References 1, 3, 4. Trevor English, “How Does Iron Man's Arc Reactor Work?” Interesting Engineering. Published June 26, 2020. https://interestingengineering.com/how-does-iron-mans-arc-reactor-work . 2. Matthew Lanctot, “DOE Explains...Nuclear Fusion Reactions.” U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed August 30, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsnuclear-fusion-reactions . 5. Earl Marmar, “Alcator C-Mod tokamak”. Plasma Science and Fusion Center - Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Accessed August 31, 2021. https://www.psfc.mit.edu/research/topics/alcator-c-mod-tokamak 6. Paul Kyberd, “How a ‘muon accelerator’ could unravel some of the universe’s greatest mysteries”. The Conversation. Published February 20, 2020. https://theconversation.com/how-a-muon-accelerator-could-unravel-some-of-the-universes-greatest-mysteries-131415 . 7. Seiichi Yamamoto, “First images of muon beams”. EurekAlert! Published February 3, 2021. https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/836969 . 8. Tibi Puiu, “Particle accelerator only 30cm in size is hundred times faster than LHC”. ZME Science. Published November 6, 2014. https://www.zmescience.com/science/physics/particle-accelerator-faster-lhc-5334/ .

Sick of lockdown? Let science explain why. By Tanya Kovacevic Feeling like the ant under COVID’s boot? Find out just why you are feeling so down, and how you can break free of the overflow of emotions. Edited by Sam Williams Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Quynh Anh Nguyen Trigger warning: This article mentions symptoms of mental illness. If at any point the content is distressing, please contact any of the support services listed at the end of the article. COVID-19: the greatest enemy of 2020 and 2021. Victoria has had six lockdowns in the hopes of disrupting the course of the virus, leaving many feeling tired and hopeless. The endless restrictions have tested our resilience beyond belief. As a result, many of us are sick of lockdown: we are tired, moody, and anxious, following months on end of being secluded in our homes. It seems we have all turned into little Snorlaxes. If this is sounding uncomfortably familiar, you are not alone. Psychologists have realised it is a common occurrence amongst many Australians. So why are our little octopus plushies showing their angry little faces? What can we do about it? Illustration by Quynh Anh Nguyen Cue the entrance of ‘lockdown fatigue’: the psychological phenomenon describing a wide-reaching feeling of intense exhaustion, due to the long-term effects of COVID-19 (1). Speaking to your fellow students (and lecturers/staff), you might find that a common theme of working from home is too much time binging on Netflix. In other words, there is a shared lack of motivation and concentration. The Australian Psychological Society has likened these symptoms to the natural process of grieving – yes, you read that right: we are all grieving. The world that we once knew has been completely disrupted, with our daily freedoms and safety torn away from us. Lockdowns have introduced so many unfamiliar aspects into our lives, from regular tests to social distancing to travel restrictions. Where we once had freedom to go to concerts or the footy, or to lie in the sand with the sun on our faces in Torquay, we are now confined within our own boring four walls. Combine this with missing our friends and family, worrying about the future, and inconsistent messages from politicians, it is no surprise that we are currently witnessing a lockdown fatigue epidemic. Identifying lockdown fatigue can be extremely difficult, as most of the symptoms overlap with common mental illnesses, such as depression and anxiety (2). Racing thoughts and conflict with those close to you are early signs (3). A study of 243 Filipino students showed that headaches and body pain were also common amongst students attempting to balance the effects of lockdown with their education (4). The most frequent symptoms are perhaps the most observable: depressed mood, irritability, fear or anxiety about how this will all end, lack of motivation and/or concentration, inability to make choices, and, of course, feeling mentally and physically exhausted (5). You could even be having more nightmares (6), some being about the coronavirus-ad jingle. It’s tiring just to read through that list. So many symptoms, but what causes them? Grief for the freedoms we have lost and stress about the future is messing with everyone at the moment. The high levels of stress mimic a post-traumatic stress response while we live through horrible lockdown moments again and again, kicking our sympathetic nervous system into overdrive (7). The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for all things fight-or-flight (or fight-flight-freeze, if you are a psychology nerd), releasing stress-related hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline. Stress over long periods of time, especially over 18 months, is undoubtedly going to take a toll – that toll is seen in lockdown fatigue, with those levels of cortisol building up. The accumulation weakens the immune response, which is why you may be getting colds more often, and it also taps into the brain, altering mood, motivation levels, and the fear response (8). The body’s resources are drained by constant worrying, and even more-so the resources of the mind. With mental fatigue comes lethargy, preventing you from paying attention to those lectures that feel longer than Lord of the Rings: Return of the King. It is a ripple effect: lethargy turns to apathy and stress, stress leads to frustration when the internet drops out for the 100th time during the lecture, frustration leads to further fatigue, to sadness… Everything has a cause and a consequence. There are ways to combat lockdown fatigue, so do not think that it is the end of the world, even though it may seem like it. One of the key symptoms of lockdown fatigue is an overflow of emotions. The rush of feelings (or lack thereof) can often cause distress on its own, so it is important to accept that there is nothing wrong with feeling the way you do (9). Analysing and criticising your emotions will do more harm than good, so try to be nice to yourself! Dr Luana Marques, a psychiatrist and associate professor at Harvard Medical School, reminds her students at that, “however you may be feeling is valid in its own right (10).” Take it easy. Learn to love yourself. Mindfulness is a commonly recommended method of staying in touch with your mind and body (11). Whether it is journaling, meditating, or yoga, any mindfulness activity can strengthen the prefrontal cortex – responsible for thought processes and self-control – increasing your resilience and your ability to pay attention to your surroundings (12). If you notice that you are beginning to be overwhelmed by your emotions, change your focus (13). Think about everything that you have achieved, as small as it may be. Perfected your sourdough? Amazing. Taught your dog some new tricks? Get that on TikTok. Made your bed this morning? Go you! It does not need to be something extravagant, like making a new spacecraft; any accomplishment is something to be proud of, no matter how small. Many of us are also missing social contact, so say hello to your neighbours or get on FaceTime with your friends. Maintaining relationships is fundamental to breaking through the overwhelming uncertainties and negative emotions that come with lockdowns (14, 15). Finally, as much as you may want to, avoid staying bed in bed the whole day. Staying in bed will only give those annoying thoughts a chance to come crashing down (16). Instead, go outside and see some natural light. Natural light will help maintain your circadian rhythm – the cycle which decides when you feel tired and when you are pumped with energy – and make you feel better (17). So go ahead. Make a routine and take back a little bit of control. Start doing downward dogs and turning into a pretzel. Get this bread. COVID-19 and lockdowns have found a way to disrupt so many aspects of our lives, but ultimately, we decide how we approach it, though we may need a little bit of help. Lookout for yourself, and for your friends and family. The fact that you are resilient enough to still be here is testimony to your strength. If you can live through this chaos, you can live through anything. If at any time you feel or have felt concerned about your mental well-being, please consult a GP or contact any of the following services: Suicide Call Back Service: 1300 659 467 or suicidecallbackservice.org.au; Lifeline: 13 11 14 or lifeline.org.au; Beyond Blue: 1300 22 4636 or beyondblue.org.au; MensLine Australia: 1300 78 99 78 or mensline.org.au; or the University’s CAPS: 03 8344 6927 for an appointment, or 1300 219 459 for emergency support. References: 1, 2, 5, 9, 14. Australian Psychological Society. Managing lockdown fatigue. Victoria: The Australian Psychological Society Limited, 2020. 3, 10, 12. Marques, Luana, and Waldinger, Robert. “Overcoming Quarantine Fatigue.” Massachusetts General Hospital. Published June 2, 2020. https://www.massgeneral.org/news/coronavirus/quarantine-fatigue . 4. Labrague, Leodoro J., and Ballad, Cherry Ann. “Lockdown fatigue among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic: Predictive roles of personal resilience, coping behaviors, and health.” Perspectives in Psychiatric Care 57, no. 3 (Mar 2021): 2-6. 6. Silva, Kristian. “Feeling tired during the COVID-19 pandemic? Here’s how you can improve your energy and motivation levels.” ABC News, September 9, 2020, 8:21 a.m. AEST, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-09-09/fatigue-during-covid-19-pandemic-how-to-lift-energy-motivation/12640002 . 7. Victorian Institute of Forensic Mental Health. "Lockdown fatigue amid Lockdown 6.0." Published August 2021. https://www.forensicare.vic.gov.au/lockdown-fatigue-amid-lockdown-6-0/ . 8, 15. Mayo Clinic. “Chronic stress puts your health at risk.” Published July 2021. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/stress/art-20046037 . 11, 13. Beyond Blue, “Lockdown regrets? Focus on what you did do.” Published 2020. https://coronavirus.beyondblue.org.au/managing-my-daily-life/coping-with-isolation-and-being-at-home/lockdown-regrets-focus-on-what-you-did-do.html .

Have you ever wondered if trees talk to each other? Happily, many scientists across time have had the same thought. So much fascinating knowledge has arisen from their research about the intricacies of trees and the different ways they converse with one another. Chatter Silent Conversations: How Trees Talk to One Another By Lily McCann There are so many conversations that go on beyond our hearing. This column explores communication between trees and how it might change the way we perceive them. Edited by Ethan Newnham, Irene Lee & Niesha Baker Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Rachel Ko It’s getting brighter. A long, long winter is receding and warm days are flooding in. I’m not one for sunbathing, but I love to lie in the backyard in the shade of the gums and gaze up into the branches. They seem to revel in the weather as much as I do, waving arms languidly in the light or holding still as if afraid to lose a single ray of sun. If there’s a breeze, you might just be able to hear them whispering to one another. There’s a whole family of these gums in my backyard and each one is different. I can picture them as distinctly as the faces of people I love. One wears a thick, red coat of shaggy bark; another has pale, smooth skin; a third sheds its outer layer in long, stringy filaments that droop like scarves from its limbs. These different forms express distinct personalities. Gum trees make you feel there is more to them than just wood and leaves. There’s a red gum in Central Victoria called the ‘Maternity Tree’. It’s incredible to look at. The huge trunk is hollowed out and forms a sort of alcove or belly, open to the sky. Generations of Dja Dja Wurrung women have sought shelter here when in labour. An arson attack recently blackened the trunk and lower branches, but the tree survived (1). Such trees have incredibly long, rich lives. Imagine all the things they would say, if they could only tell us their stories. Whilst the ‘whispering’ of foliage in the wind may not have significance beyond its symbolism, there are other kinds of communication trees can harness. All we see when a breeze blows are branches and leaves swaying before it, but all the time a plethora of tiny molecules are pouring out from trees into the air. These compounds act like tiny, encrypted messages riding the wind, to be decoded by neighbours. They can carry warnings about unwanted visitors, or even coordinate group projects like flowering, so that trees can bloom in synchrony. If we turn our gaze lower we can see that more dialogue spreads below ground. Trees have their own telephone cable system (7), linking up members of the same and even different species. This system takes the form of fungal networks, which transfer nutrients and signals between trees (3). Unfortunately, subscription to this network isn’t free: fungi demand a sugar supply for their services. Overall, though, the relationship is beneficial to both parties and allows for an effective form of underground communication in forests. These conversations are not restricted to deep-rooted, leaf-bearing beings: trees are multilingual. A whole web of inter-species dialogue murmurs amongst the branches beyond the grasp of our deaf ears. Through the language of scent, trees entice pollinators such as bees and birds to feed on their nectar and spread their pollen (4). They warn predators against attacking by releasing certain chemicals (5). They can even manipulate other species for their own defence: when attacked by wax scale insects, a Persimmon tree calls up its own personal army by alerting ladybugs, who feed on the scales, averting the threat to the tree (6). Such relationships demonstrate the crucial role trees play in local ecosystems and their essentially cooperative natures. Trees can be very altruistic, especially when it comes to family members. Mother trees foster the growth of young ones by providing nutrients, and descendants support their elderly relatives - even corpses of hewn-down trees - through their underground cable systems. These intimate, extensive connections between trees are not so different from our own societal networks. Do trees, too, have communities, family loyalties, friends? Can they express the qualities of love and trust required, in the human world, for such relationships? This thought begs the question: Can trees feel? They certainly have an emotional impact on us. I can sense it as I lie under the gums. Think about the last time you went hiking, sat in a tree’s shade, walked through a local park. There’s something about being amongst trees that calms and inspires. Science agrees: one study has shown that walking in forests is more beneficial to our health than walking through the city. How do trees manage to have such a strong effect on us? Peter Wohlleben, German forester and author of The Hidden Life of Trees, suggests that happy trees may impart their mood to us (9). He compares the atmosphere around ‘unhappy’ trees in plantations where threats abound and stress signals fill the air to old forests where ecosystem relations are more stabilised and trees healthier. We feel more relaxed and content in these latter environments. The emotive capacity of trees is yet to be proven scientifically, but is it a reasonable claim? If we define happiness as the circulation of ‘good’ molecules such as growth hormones and sugars, and the absence of ‘bad’ ones like distress signals, then we may suggest that for trees an abundance of good cues and a lack of warnings could be associated with a positive state. And this positive state - allowing trees to fulfill day-to-day functions, grow and proliferate, live in harmony with their environment - could be termed a kind of happiness in its own right. This may seem like a stretch - after all, how can you feel happiness without a brain? But Baluska et al. suggest that trees have those too, or something like them: command centres, integrative hubs in roots functioning somewhat like our own brains (10). Others compare a tree to an axon, a single nerve, conducting electrical signals along its length (11). Perhaps we could say that a forest, the aggregate of all these nerve connections, is a brain. Whilst we can draw endless analogies between the two, trees and animals parted ways 1.5 billion years ago in their evolutionary paths (12). Each developed their own ways of listening and responding to their environments. Who’s to say whether they haven’t both developed their own kinds of consciousness? If we take the time to contemplate trees, we can see that they are infinitely more complex and sensitive than we could have imagined. They have their own modes of communicating with and reacting to their environment. The fact is, trees are storytellers. They send out a constant flow of information into the air, the soil, and the root and fungal systems that join them to their community. Even if we can’t converse with trees in the same way that we converse with each other, it’s worth listening in on their chatter. They could tell us about changes in climate, threats to their environment, and how we can best help these graceful beings and the world around them. References: 1. Schubert, Shannon. “700yo Aboriginal Maternity Tree Set Alight in Victoria.” www.abc.net.au , August 8, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-08-08/dja-dja-wurrung-birthing-tree-set-on-fire/100359690. 2. Pichersky, Eran, and Jonathan Gershenzon. “The Formation and Function of Plant Volatiles: Perfumes for Pollinator Attraction and Defense.” Current Opinion in Plant Biology 5, no. 3 (June 2002): 237–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1369-5266(02)00251-0.; Falik, Omer, Ishay Hoffmann, and Ariel Novoplansky. “Say It with Flowers.” Plant Signaling & Behavior 9, no. 4 (March 5, 2014): e28258. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.28258. 3. Simard, Suzanne W., David A. Perry, Melanie D. Jones, David D. Myrold, Daniel M. Durall, and Randy Molina. “Net Transfer of Carbon between Ectomycorrhizal Tree Species in the Field.” Nature 388, no. 6642 (August 1997): 579–82. https://doi.org/10.1038/41557. 4. Buchmann, Stephen L, and Gary Paul Nabhan. The Forgotten Pollinators. Editorial: Washington, D.C.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 1997. 5. De Moraes, Consuelo M., Mark C. Mescher, and James H. Tumlinson. “Caterpillar-Induced Nocturnal Plant Volatiles Repel Conspecific Females.” Nature 410, no. 6828 (March 2001): 577–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/35069058. 6. Zhang, Yanfeng, Yingping Xie, Jiaoliang Xue, Guoliang Peng, and Xu Wang. “Effect of Volatile Emissions, Especially -Pinene, from Persimmon Trees Infested by Japanese Wax Scales or Treated with Methyl Jasmonate on Recruitment of Ladybeetle Predators.” Environmental Entomology 38, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 1439–45. https://doi.org/10.1603/022.038.0512. 7, 9. Wohlleben, Peter, Jane Billinghurst, Tim F Flannery, Suzanne W Simard, and David Suzuki Institute. The Hidden Life of Trees : The Illustrated Edition. Vancouver ; Berkeley: David Suzuki Institute, 2018. 10. Baluška, František, Stefano Mancuso, Dieter Volkmann, and Peter Barlow. “The ‘Root-Brain’ Hypothesis of Charles and Francis Darwin.” Plant Signaling & Behavior 4, no. 12 (December 2009): 1121–27. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.4.12.10574. 11. Hedrich, Rainer, Vicenta Salvador-Recatalà, and Ingo Dreyer. “Electrical Wiring and Long-Distance Plant Communication.” Trends in Plant Science 21, no. 5 (May 2016): 376–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2016.01.016. 12. Wang, Daniel Y.-C., Sudhir Kumar, and S. Blair Hedges. “Divergence Time Estimates for the Early History of Animal Phyla and the Origin of Plants, Animals and Fungi.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 266, no. 1415 (January 22, 1999): 163–71. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1999.0617.

About Us OmniSci Magazine is a science magazine at the University of Melbourne, run entirely by students, for students. Our team consists of talented feature writers, columnists, editors, graphics designers, social media and web development officers, all passionate about communicating science! Past Contributor Interviews Editors-in-Chief Ingrid Sefton President Kara Miwa-Dale President Current Committee Jess Walton Secretary Ciara Dahl General Committee Esme MacGillivray Treasurer Luci Ackland General Committee Kylie Wang Events and Socials Saraf Ishmam General Committee Elijah McEvoy Events and Socials Past Editors-in-Chief Aisyah M. Sulhaddin 2024-2025 Yvette Marris 2022-2023 Rachel Ko 2022-2024 Sophia Lin 2021-2022 Patrick Grave 2021-2023 Maya Salinger 2021-2022 Caitlin Kane 2022-2023 Felicity Hu 2021-2022

< Back to Issue 7 A Coral’s Story: From thriving reef to desolation by Nicola Zuzek-Mayer 22 October 2024 edited by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo illustrated by Amanda Agustinus The sun is shining. Shoals of fish are zooming past me, leaving their nests where I let them stay for protection from bigger fish. I look to my right and the usual fish have come to dine from me, filling their bellies with vital nutrients. I feel proud of our coexistence: I feed the big fish and provide shelter to small fish, whilst they clean algae off of me. I am the foundation of the reef. I am the architect of the reef. Without me, there would be nothing. I can’t help but think that the reef is looking vibrant today. A wide variety of different coloured corals surround me in the reef, with some of my closest friends a stone’s throw away. We’ve all known each other for our entire lives, and it’s such a close knit community of diverse corals. Life is sprawling in this underwater metropolis, and it reminds me of how much I love my home. But recently, I’ve heard some gossip amongst the city’s inhabitants that this paradise may change soon – and for the worse. Something about the land giants destroying our home. I refuse to believe such rumours – why would they want to destroy us? Our home is so beautiful, and we have done nothing to hurt them. Our beauty attracts many of them to come visit us, and most never hurt us. But sometimes I feel pain when they visit on a particularly sunny day, when I see white particles drop down to the reef and pierce my branches, polluting the city. My friends have told me that these giants wear something called ‘sunscreen’ to protect themselves from the sun, but their ‘protection’ is actually poisoning us. I hope that they realise that soon. Another thing that I’ve noticed recently is that the ocean is feeling slightly warmer than before, and my growth is slowing more. Yes, I’m concerned, but I don’t think that the issue will get worse. 30 years later… The sun is blisteringly hot. I feel sick and the water around me is scorching hot. The vibrant colours of the reef are disappearing, and there are fewer organisms around. We used to be so diverse, but so many species of fish have died out. It’s eerie to see the area so desolate. My body is deteriorating and I feel so much more fragile than before. I feel tired all the time, after using so much energy to repair my body in the acidic water. I sense myself becoming paler, losing all colour in my body. I struggle to breathe. My coral friends and family are long gone, perished from the acidity of the ocean. I am the last one remaining. In my last moments, I can only wish to go and relive the past. I wish that the land giants had done more to help not only my city, but other reef cities around the world. All the other cities are empty now, and all ecosystems are long gone. If only someone had helped our dying world. Previous article Next article apex back to

Each issue of OmniSci Magazine is created by a team of passionate students, who contribute as writers, editors, designers, and behind the sciences as our organising committee. This interview series highlights six from our exceptional team for Issue 4: Mirage. Interview Series Each issue of OmniSci Magazine is c reated by a team of passionate students, who contribute as writers, editors, designers, and behind the sciences as our organising committee. This interview series highlights six from our exceptional team for Issue 4: Mirage, released in July 2023! Interviews by Caitlin Kane, Graphics by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Meet OmniSci Editor Ta ny a Kovacevic Ever wondered what it's like to contribute to OmniSci? We spoke to Tanya Kovacevic about her experience, from starting writing during lockdown to what's in the words for Issue 4: Mirage! Tanya is currently in her third year of the Bachelor of Biomedicine and studying a concurrent diploma in Italian. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to four articles as an editor. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Writer Mahsa Nabizada Doubting time is real? We spoke to first-year uni student Mahsa Nabizada about her upcoming article on this very topic, plus advice for starting university and why Thorium has a special place in her heart. Mahsa is a writer at OmniSci and a first-year university student planning to study mathematical physics. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is writing about the illusion of time. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Writer and Editor Elijah McEv oy Bored of that one topic you need to keep revising this week? Read our chat with Elijah McEvoy about getting inspired by all areas of science, his sci-fi movie recommendations, and hear about his upcoming article about artificial intelligence. Elijah is a writer and editor at OmniSci and a second-year Bachelor of Science student. For Issue 4: Mirage, he is writing about artificial intelligence that masquerades as human, and contributing to two articles as an editor. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Designer and Committee Member Aisya h Mohammad Sulhanuddin Thinking of joining the OmniSci committee? We spoke to Aisyah, who incorporates her love for design into illustrations, events and social media at OmniSci, and shares her advice for those interested in getting involved (just do it!). Aisyah is a designer and Events Officer at OmniSci in her final year of a Bachelor of Science in geography. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to social media and as an illustrator. READ MORE Meet Omni Sci Writer and Committee Member Rachel Ko Curious what an OmniSci Editor-in-Chief actually does? We spoke to Rachel about drawing anatomy, interviewing a med student hero, and helping build the the science communication universe! Rachel is a writer and Editor-in-Chief at OmniSci, now in her first year of the Doctor of Medicine. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is writing an interview with science communicator, Dr Karen Freilich. READ MORE Meet OmniSci Designer Jolin See New to science? New to Melbourne? New to OmniSci? Yes, yes and yes! We spoke to Jolin about joining OmniSci with an art background, growing through challenges, and her best local exhibit recommendations. Jolin is a designer at OmniSci and an exchange student from Singapore studying Psychology and Arts & Culture Management. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is contributing to our website, and to two articles as an illustrator. READ MORE

Science Ethics Should We Protect Our Genetic Information? By Grace Law What is a top story that has been brewing in our news in recent months? This column provides an introduction to the topic and why we should care about it. For this issue, our focus is on the security of our genetic and biometric data. Edited by Juulke Castelijn & Khoa-Anh Tran Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Our genetic and biometric data, like DNA and fingerprints, make each of us unique and identifiable. This information is invaluable in allowing us to verify our identity, predict personal characteristics, identify medical conditions, and trace our ancestry. But there are consequences we should be aware of when we are sharing this data. It is often not known exactly what our information is used for. We must make a more informed decision about the services we obtain in exchange for our biometric and genetic information. The unknown consequences of medical tests Most of us would not hesitate to get a blood or genetic test. These tests have been instrumental in allowing us to identify genetic abnormalities, monitor our health, and provide peace of mind in pregnancies. However, some companies and 3rd parties have exploited the trust patients placed in them to analyse these data beyond the original medical intentions. Reuters reported in July 2021 of a Chinese gene company, BGI, using leftover genetic data from their prenatal test to research population traits (1). The test is sold in at least 52 countries to detect abnormalities like Down’s syndrome in the fetus but it also captures genetic and personal information about the mother. The company confirmed that leftover blood samples are used for population research, and the test’s privacy policy states that data collected can be shared when “directly relevant to national security or national defence security” in China (2). This is not the only instance of genetic data being exploited by a state for mass examination and surveillance purposes. The Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI) published a research paper identifying the Chinese Government Ministry of Public Security’s mass DNA collection campaigns on millions of men and boys (3). It aims to ‘comprehensively improve public security organs’ ability to solve cases, and manage and control society’ (4). Certainly such databases are useful to forensic investigations, but the mass collection of genetic data raises serious human rights concerns regarding ownership, privacy and consent. Furthermore, it opens the possibility of surveillance by the government (5). Everyone should be giving fully informed consent for the usage of their genetic information in accordance with international human rights law (6). ‘At-home’ genetic kits are not guaranteed to be secure Although there is no evidence of such scales of surveillance in Australia, we are not immune to exploitation and questionable practices. Direct-to-consumer (DIC) genetic tests are widely available, often through online purchases. These tests advertise as being able to indicate predisposition to various diseases, including diabetes, breast cancer and heart disease (7). However, as these processes don’t always involve the advice and interpretation of a doctor, there are concerns that data may be analysed beyond current medical understanding. Misinformation, such as misdiagnosis or exaggeration of the certainty of the user’s health conditions, can cause unnecessary anxiety. The discovery of medical predispositions can have ongoing consequences, including refusal of coverage from insurance companies and discrimination by society (8). Under the US Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, employees cannot discriminate against employers on the basis of genetic information. Australia currently relies on existing Commonwealth, state and territory anti-discrimination laws to protect against discrimination in public domains (9). Companies are also not regulated by the law in what they do with the information collected. Many have been found to use the information beyond providing results to consumers, such as for internal research and development, or providing it to third parties without additional consent (10). Ancestry tests are another type of DIC test facing similar scrutiny. As we all share genetic information with our relatives, these tests allow us to identify distant relatives, and even help solve mysteries and capture a serial killer (11). Testing companies therefore have portions of genetic information from relatives without needing to obtain their consent, as well as being able to identify familial lineages. These examples highlight the difficulty of protecting consumer privacy and maintaining ownership of our genetic information. The daily convenience of biometric data and its unintended side-effects Most of us do not encounter the aforementioned tests daily, but we often use our biometric data in many aspects of our lives. As technology advances, fingerprint readers, facial scanners, and even retina/iris scanners are available on our phones to replace traditional PINs. These have been widely adopted due to their convenience. However, our security is being compromised in the process. Not only is your device easier to hack compared to passwords, but the collection of biometric data can also be illegally obtained from improper storage (12, 13). We cannot change our biometric data like a password. Once it is compromised, it is beyond our control. Meanwhile, technology is advancing to include new types of biometric data like voice recognition, hand geometry and behaviour characteristics. As our lives become more public through social media, others may be using this opportunity to collect more information. TikTok’s update on its privacy policy recently included permission to gather physical and behavioural characteristics, but it is unclear what it is being used for (14). These examples highlight why we should be aware of the consequences and compromisation we make in using biometric data for daily convenience. Looking to the future There is certainly no shortage of interest in our genetic information and biometric data. Unfortunately, current legislation is fairly general and therefore not equipped to deal with the variety of issues that emerge with specific technologies. Exacerbating this effect are the continual advances made in this technology, with the law simply not keeping up. But that does not mean we are helpless. A landmark case found that an Australian worker being fired for refusing to use a fingerprint scanner at work was unjust (15). This shows our rights over our genetic information are still in our own hands. While we should be vigilant at all times, it should not deter us from accessing the necessary medical tests or saving us a few seconds each time we access our phones. It is more important to protect ourselves: be aware of our rights, the policies we are consenting to, and the possible implications of a service. Whilst appropriate legislation still needs to be developed, we can hold companies accountable for their policies. We should also be critical in whether we publicise all of our information, and be cognizant of the way our data is stored. This is an instance where we really should read the terms and conditions before accepting. References: 1 . Needham, Kirsty and Clare Baldwin. “Special report: China’s gene giant harvests data from millions of women.” Reuters, July 8, 2021. https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/chinas-gene-giant-harvests-data-millions-women-2021-07-07/ . 2. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. “China’s BGI group using prenatal test developed with Chinese military to harvest gene data.” July 8, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-08/prenatal-test-bgi-group-china-genetic-data-harvesting/100276700 . 3. Dirks, Emile and James Leibold. Genomic surveillance: Inside China’s DNA dragnet. Barton, ACT: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 17 June, 2020. https://www.aspi.org.au/report/genomic-surveillance . 4. Renmin Net. “Hubei Yunxi police helped to solve a 20-year-old man’s duplicated household registration issue.” 18 November, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-08/prenatal-test-bgi-group-china-genetic-data-harvesting/100276700 . 5. Wee, Sui-Lee. “China is Collecting NDA From Tens of Millions of Men and Boys, Using U.S. Equipment.” 17 July, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/17/world/asia/China-DNA-surveillance.html . 6. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights. Paris, France: United Nations, 11 November, 1997. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/humangenomeandhumanrights.aspx . 7. Norrgard, Karen. “DTC genetic testing for diabetes, breast cancer, heart disease and paternity,” Nature Education 1, 1(2008): 86. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dtc-genetic-testing-for-diabetes-breast-cancer-698/. 8, 10. Consumer Reports. “The privacy risks of at-home DNA tests.” Washington Post, September 14, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/dna-tests-privacy-risks/2020/09/11/6a783a34-d73b-11ea-9c3b-dfc394c03988_story.html . 9. National Health and Medical Research Council. Genetic Discrimination. Canberra, Australia: November, 2013. https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/genetic-discrimination. 11. Jeong, Raehoon. “How direct-to-consumer genetic testing services led to the capture of the golden state killer.” Science in the News, 2 September, 2018. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/direct-consumer-genetic-testing-services-led-capture-golden-state-killer/ . 12. Lee, Alex. “Why you should never use pattern passwords on your phone.” Wired UK, 3 July, 2020. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/phone-lock-screen-password . 13. Johansen, Alison Grace. “Biometrics and biometric data: What is it and is it secure?” NortonLifeLock, 8 February, 2019. https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-iot-biometrics-how-do-they-work-are-they-safe.html . 14. McCluskey, M. “TikTok Has Started Collecting Your ‘Faceprints’ and ‘Voiceprints.’ Here’s What It Could Do With Them.” Time, 14 June, 2021. https://time.com/6071773/tiktok-faceprints-voiceprints-privacy/ . 15. Perper, Rosie. “An Australian worker won a landmark privacy case against his employer after he was fired for refusing to use a fingerprint scanner.” Business Insider Australia, 22 May, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-worker-wins-privacy-case-against-employer-biometric-data-2019-5?r=US&IR=T.

< Back to Issue 7 Designing the perfect fish by Andy Shin 22 October 2024 edited by Luci Ackland illustrated by Esme MacGillivray Fish are the oldest known vertebrates, with the earliest fossil evidence dating back to the lower Cambrian period almost 530 million years ago (Shu et al., 1999). Since their inception, fish have exhibited a variety of different physical and behavioural traits to best exploit their environments. Over time, the effectiveness of these traits will be tested through competitive pressures or environmental factors. This raises a rather silly but nonetheless interesting question; if we could design a ‘frankenfish’ using features from other fish, what would the best combination of traits be for our modern oceans? Will older trends still work today? Is there a fish now that is already perfect? To help us answer this question, we will need to set a few ground rules: The idea of a ‘perfect’ animal is incredibly subjective and does not follow any known ecological frameworks. For this thought experiment, our ‘frankenfish’ will need to be able to manage the impacts of climate change and global fisheries. We will assume that the frankenfish must compete with existing species in the ocean. We can choose where we initially release our fish. Other than a rapidly warming ocean, we will assume no catastrophic extinction level event. We will assume that our frankenfish will survive long enough to reproduce at least once, ensuring the initial population is allowed to grow in size. Considerations Thermal tolerance With mean ocean sea surface temperatures predicted to increase by 1-2 degrees Celsius in the next century (Mimura, 2013), we should first design our fish after more tropical or temperate species. If sea surface temperatures become too high, our new fish could move towards the poles. This phenomenon is known as a range shift (Rubenstein et al., 2023) and has already been performed by many different marine species in recent years. When looking at the larval stages of different marine organisms, those that live in higher temperatures are generally better-equipped to deal with changes in the surrounding temperature (Marshall & Alvarez-Noriega, 2020). Trophic position Although it would be fun to simply create a new apex predator, we will need to think of trade-offs between energy expenditure, energy requirements and food availability. As a general rule of thumb, only 10% of caloric energy is transferred through each trophic level (Lindeman, 1942). Essentially, this means an organism at the top of the food chain will need to consume thousands of different organisms over its lifetime. Likewise, a lower-order organism will likely be a food source for a higher one but require less total energy to grow and reproduce over its lifetime. Essentially, there will be more room in the environment for lower-order fish, meaning more individuals can be placed, increasing the chance of successful future reproductive events. Life history and reproductive strategy In the world of ecology, species can broadly be categorised into 2 groups based on life history strategies: r-selected and k-selected species (Pianka, 1970). R-selected species tend to produce large numbers of offspring, develop quickly, and have higher rates of offspring mortality. Likewise, k-selected species develop slower, have less offspring but have higher rates of offspring survivorship. Group behaviours Fish often display group behaviours known as schooling and shoaling. Shoaling refers to a congregation of fish, whilst schooling requires coordinated movement of fish in the same direction. By grouping together, fish have less individual risk of being eaten by a predator and the group’s ability to sense danger is also heightened. Furthermore, schooling behaviour can reduce the energy an individual fish spends whilst swimming by 20% (Marras et al., 2014). Group behaviour may also lead to confusing an inexperienced predator (Magurran, 1990), though many modern predator species have adaptations to take advantage of shoals and schools. There are some drawbacks to group behaviour. Firstly, fish will have access to less food individually as enough food will need to be distributed across the group. Secondly, groups which grow too large attract large numbers of predators and lead to ‘bait balls’, which is essentially a floating buffet for any larger animal. Group behaviour is incredibly common in lower-order fish but is also exhibited in higher order predators such as Tuna and some shark species. It is estimated that almost half of all fish species will partake in group behaviour at some point in their lifecycle. Scales, Plates and Skin The structure of skin has implications for the hydrodynamics of an organism, influencing the level of lift and drag. The type of skin will also influence protection from parasites and predators. We will briefly discuss two types of scales, but other specialised scales exist. The skin of cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) is composed of microscopic interlocking teeth-like structures known as placoid scales. The unique design of placoid scales facilitates the formation of small whorls whilst moving, reducing the drag experienced by the fish (Helfman et al., 2009, pp. 23–41). Placoid scales also act as a parasite deterrent, comparable to antifouling designs in modern cargo ships. Alternatively, many teleosts (bony fish) are covered in larger (non-microscopic), thinner scales known as leptoid scales (Helfman et al., 2009, pp. 23–41). These are further differentiated into circular and toothed scales (Helfman et al., 2009, pp. 23–41). Circular scales are smoother and uniformed, whilst toothed scales are rougher. Similar to placoid scales, leptoid scales reduce drag experienced by the fish (Roberts, 1993). Additionally, leptoid scales can be highly reflective, allowing for a unique form of camouflage known as silvering (Herring, 2001). Another thing to consider is colour. Red light is almost invisible past 40 metres of depth (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, n.d.), whilst blues and greys can. provide better camouflage from predators above and below you through countershading (Ruxton et al., 2004). Extra features – toxins, slime and light These are niche defence mechanisms which reduce the risk of predation. When agitated, Hagfish are able to release a thick, quickly expanding mucus from their skin, blocking the gills of an attacking fish (Zeng et al., 2023). Hagfish are only able to remove excess mucus on their skin by creating a knot with their own body (Böni et al., 2016), which is possible thanks to their eel-like shape. This design may not translate well when creating our own perfect fish, as the elongated shape limits it to the bottom of the ocean (Friedman et al., 2020). Other fish, such as some species of pufferfish, house bacteria in various organs that produce toxins which pool in livers and ovaries. A downside with toxins is that they only work if an attacker is already aware of their effect, meaning at least 1 pufferfish was consumed in the past. Furthermore, some fish species can ignore the effect of certain toxins. Toxin-producing bacteria is acquired through diet, which could limit the dietary range of our frankenfish. Other species of fish such as lionfish, stonefish and some catfish contain specialised venom glands which release toxins along the spines of their fins, which is considered a more efficient delivery method. Even without toxins, sharper fins can act as a deterrent for predators from swallowing you whole. Fish living in deeper waters tend to display bioluminescence, which causes them to produce light with the help of bacteria. This has numerous benefits including startling predators, camouflage, attracting food, and in unique cases allows an animal to see red pigments deep underwater (Young & Roper, 1976; Herring & Cope, 2005). As a downside, humans tend to exploit bioluminescence and use it to find large groups of fish and squid. Past and current champions The armoured fish The armoured fish, known as Placodermi, were a widespread group of fish who were prominent during the Devonian period (419 – 359 mya). The Placoderms are subdivided into 8 orders based on body shape characteristics, the most successful of which was known as Arthrodira. Species in Arthrodira occupied a variety of different niches from apex predators to detrital feeders, but all shared the common feature of jointed armour plates near the neck and face. The Placoderms were never outcompeted in their 60-million-year run. Instead, their time on Earth was cut short by multiple catastrophic events associated with the Late Devonian extinction. This could suggest that without random chance, the Placoderms would never have been dethroned. Sharks Sharks emerged at a similar time to the Placoderms but managed to survive the Late Devonian extinction events. Sharks have a cartilaginous skeleton as well as electromagnetic receptors known as Ampullae of Lorenzini, which are used to detect prey activity. The body plan of sharks has stayed relatively consistent over the last 400 million years, and they’ve managed to survive various extinction level events. The only issue with sharks is their value to humans, leading to millions of sharks being harvested for fins each year. Sharks are a k-selected species and produce only a handful of young. Most sharks deposit a handful of eggs which are protected by a casing and filled with yolk, increasing the fitness of a successful juvenile but also increasing the chance of predation removing it from the gene pool. Smaller egg clutches also mean the loss of a young shark has a higher relative impact on a population compared to a mass spawning species. Bristlemouths and Lanternfish These are similar families of fish and are some of the most abundant vertebrates on the planet. Unlike sharks, these fish are R-selected. Otolith (fish ear bone) samples suggest both families rose to prominence at least 5 million years ago (Přikryl & Carnevale, 2017; Schwarzhans & Carnevale, 2021) due to a massive bloom in phytoplankton. Out of these 2 groups, the Bristlemouths are the most abundant. Although survey data from the deep ocean is rare, prior studies revealed between 70-80% of all deep-sea fish were a variation of a Bristlemouth (Sutton et al., 2010). Despite their abundance, not too much is known about the Bristlemouth due to the depths they inhabit; 1000- 2000 metres. Meanwhile, Lanternfish are responsible for displaying a rising and falling ‘false sea floor’ in early sonar technology, known as the Deep Scattering Layer (Carson et al., 1951/1991). Movement of the layer is attributed to Diel Vertical Migration, a phenomenon where fish will move up and down the water column at certain times of day to avoid predation (Ritz et al., 2011). Constructing our fish Despite the historical success of the Placoderms, current trends in prey behaviours and morphology means armoured jaws are unlikely to be very useful in modern oceans (Bellwood et al., 2015). Furthermore, armoured plates will be heavier compared to scales or cartilage, meaning excess energy will have to be gathered via predation. Given that the oceans are abundant in second-order consumers such as zooplankton and planktotrophic fish, it may be worthwhile to make our new fish a third-order consumer. The sheer abundance of bristlemouths and lanternfish should make up for the inefficiencies of higher trophic levels. Habitat-wise, our new fish should adopt a pelagic (open ocean) lifestyle to best take advantage of the abundant smaller prey animals. When thinking of behaviours, our fish taking a nocturnal approach would work best to exploit the previously mentioned diel vertical migration behaviours seen in bristlemouths and lanternfish. This also allows for daytime predator avoidance, providing our fish the best possible chance to grow in numbers and proliferate. Given the trophic position of our fish, it is reasonable to also give it the capability to form schools and shoals. The group energy costs can be offset by the abundance of prey species, which also exhibit group behaviour. The best place to release our new fish would be somewhere in the mid-latitudes. This would make it more tolerant to higher temperatures and the percentage of global ocean area is only expected to increase in the near future (unless humans can somehow revert anthropogenic climate change). Our fish should be relatively slender and be red in colour. In theory, when combined with the depth of habitat, this will make our frankenfish almost invisible to organisms without additional specialised adaptations. Taking a page from the squid playbook, small bioluminescent regions along the top half of the fish would provide some further camouflage from predators looking down. The spines on our fish’s fins should be longer and sharper than average. For fun, we can also give our fish a venomous gland. Combining long spines with venom could dissuade some predators from eating our fish, through either awkward positioning or risk of poisoning. References Alexander, R. M. (2004). Hitching a lift hydrodynamically - in swimming, flying and cycling. Journal of Biology , 3 (2), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/jbiol5 Bellwood, David R., Goatley, Christopher H. R., Bellwood, O., Delbarre, Daniel J., & Friedman, M. (2015). The Rise of Jaw Protrusion in Spiny-Rayed Fishes Closes the Gap on Elusive Prey. Current Biology , 25 (20), 2696–2700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.058 Böni, L., Fischer, P., Böcker, L., Kuster, S., & Rühs, P. A. (2016). Hagfish slime and mucin flow properties and their implications for defense. Scientific Reports , 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep30371 Carson, R. L., Zwinger, A. H., & Levinton, J. S. (1991). The sea around us . Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1951) Feld, K., Kolborg, A. N., Nyborg, C. M., Salewski, M., Steffensen, J. 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