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< Back to Issue 8 A Headspace of One’s Own by Andrew Irvin 3 June 2025 Edited by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo Illustrated by Anabelle Dewi Saraswati Biocomputers, organoids, brain-on-a-chip systems; humanity has veered into uncharted territory at the intersection of ethics and technology. Upon reading the recent New Atlas interview (1) between Loz Blain and Dr. Brett Kagan concerning Cortical Labs’ 800k neuron biocomputers, and noting the 100 billion cells (2) in the human brain, the intersection of complexity and scale comes to mind. Thinking back to the days of the Battle.net in the 1990s, I remember logging into the community and seeing characters with stupid puns for names, like Dain_Bramage or Goatmeal, and trying to engage in trade and discourse while avoiding PKs—player killers—who would go around filling up their inventories with the ears of other characters. In those early internet days my friends’ dad still had their internet billed by the hour—we found out after the first month of heavy online gaming brought an invoice hundreds of dollars higher than planned. The scope of gaming was a much smaller place; we knew the crowd online, regardless of how they played, was comprised of humans, as awful as they sometimes were. Now, nearly 30 years after those first forays into the Blizzard servers, I watch my son log onto Roblox or Fortnite , and the continuous question of whether top players cheat their way to a competitive advantage hasn’t gone anywhere–-duping resources and items to trade or finding shortcuts to buff their stats. Watching the world of online gaming grow from a few hundred thousand registered nerds to an industry that dwarfs the film and music sectors has been like watching bacteria multiply across the surface of a Petri dish. The Top 20 Massive Multiplayer Online (MMO) games alone have over a billion registered players, with over three million active players on any given day (3). There is now a question as to whether the players in the servers are even humans, or if the digital playground has been overrun by bots. As AI drives the proliferation of bots behind the Blob internet (4), another ethically fraught technological development is now starting to creep into the global market out of labs. Across the research landscape, from Brainoware at Indiana University (5), or Switzerland’s Final Spark (6), or open source tech like Tianjin University’s brain-on-chip interface (7), human neural tissue is being incorporated into computation systems. Led in no small part by Australian research at Cortical Labs (8), the commercialization of organoids is imminently upon us. In a medical and scientific sector where the functions of the human brain are incompletely understood, at best (9), the philosophical and legal concepts of sentience, free will, and agency are now being challenged by technology being developed and deployed faster than an ethical framework for safeguarding the safety of individuals and the collective well-being of our species. What happens if human laboratory experiments stumble upon the recipe for a sentient organoid intelligence that finds itself trapped as a mind without a body? The scale of these organoids may be limited by the system-scale native intelligence—“the specified complexity inherent in the information content of an artificial system (10) but neuron cell count alone does not account for the complexity of the system, and with organic network development, native intelligence will continually shift in a biocomputing context. What happens when the market forces disembodied consciousness to computer – to labour—without any space for respite? In popular media depictions of the conscious mind untethered from the body, such as The Matrix or Severance , there is always a corporeal form on the other side of the digital veil. What recourse does a mind raised in incorporeal captivity have to express its free will, if such a scenario emerges? Perhaps we should now explore the potential ethical ramifications in a scenario. My son enjoys playing cooperatively with his friends online. As such, he occasionally makes new friends in various games. Perhaps a few years from now, he’ll have found an engaged, friendly player in an online game, but despite their responsive reactions and rapport, that player isn’t truly human. If by then, due to performance and efficiency, in the interest of reducing resource demands and emissions, organoids have been mainstreamed for commercial computation, what is to keep companies from utilizing these biocomputers to reduce their costs and populate their servers? While the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and ICJ (International Commission of Jurists) have provisions for digital regulations (11) and digital tech and human rights (12), protecting the rights of cultivated consciousness is a nascent area of computer law (13) in which some of the most recent papers seem to be AI-generated (14, 15). What happens in the event that these interactions—or these learning opportunities—result in relationships forming between human users and the emerging agency of synthetic minds? When does learning lead to consciousness? Over half a century after Winnicott examined the relationship between playing & reality (16), Kagan, et al noted the uncanny similarity: “ In vitro neurons learn and exhibit sentience when embodied in a simulated game-world (17) .” So in the event these organoids learn about the world beyond the simulation from human interactions, what sits on the other side of that bridge in cognition for the sentience developed within a game environment? In consideration of the ethical bridge our technology is preparing to cross, the discourse is concerned with what inherent rights should be conferred upon that consciousness when it asserts its agency and makes itself known. Is this hypothetical, imprisoned consciousness entitled to a body to exercise its rights? What do we do when a biocomputer is given enough tasks over a long enough time to reason itself towards a decision that it wants to be a real boy? In the imminent future, ambulatory robots with articulated limbs and digits will exist to perform tasks—are we mere years away from the folly of an Electric Pinocchio? There is a moral imperative to avoid creating circumstances introducing greater inequity and injustice to this world. Can culturing consciousness in laboratory conditions be said to clear this hurdle? How do we build curious, kind, and playful minds (both in the lab and beyond), instead of forging dishbrains to pilot warbots? Given the fraught and foggy path towards understanding the full capacity of what we are creating, a course of inquiry into developing and deploying potential safeguards—to avoid unnecessary harm at the individual or collective scale—is an urgent, imperative action for legislators and regulators to prioritize (beyond just the bioethics specialists dealing with these questions at an industry level (18)). In the meantime, who stands up for these nascent minds before they learn to speak for themselves? References Cortical Labs. Dishbrain Ethics. [Internet]. Available from: https://newatlas.com/computers/cortical-labs-dishbrain-ethics/ National Center for Biotechnology Information. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551718/ MMO Population. [Internet]. Available from: https://mmo-population.com/ University of Melbourne. How bots are driving the climate crisis and how we can solve it. [Internet]. Available from: https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/how-bots-are-driving-the-climate-crisis-and-how-we-can-solve-it ScienceAlert. Scientists built a functional computer with human brain tissue. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-built-a-functional-computer-with-human-brain-tissue Futurism. Mini brains: Human tissue living computer. [Internet]. Available from: https://futurism.com/neoscope/mini-brains-human-tissue-living-computer Global Times. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202406/1314882.shtml Forbes. AI breakthrough combines living brain neurons and silicon chips in brain-in-a-box bio-computer. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/lanceeliot/2025/03/19/ai-breakthrough-combines-living-brain-neurons-and-silicon-chips-in-brain-in-a-box-bio-computer/ Psychology Today. Mind-body problem: How consciousness emerges from matter. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/finding-purpose/202301/mind-body-problem-how-consciousness-emerges-from-matter National Institute of Standards and Technology. [Internet]. Available from: https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=824478 International Telecommunication Union. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.itu.int/hub/publication/D-PREF-TRH.1-2020/ International Commission of Jurists. Digital Technologies and Human Rights Briefing Paper. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Digital-Technologies-and-Human-Rights-Briefing-Paper-FINAL-VERSION-May-2022.pdf ScienceDirect. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0267364921001096 Academia.edu . Digital Consciousness Rights Framework: A Declaration for the Protection of AI-Based Digital Organisms. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/127621077/Digital_Consciousness_Rights_Framework_A_Declaration_for_the_Protection_of_AI_Based_Digital_Organisms Diverse Daily. Legal rights of digital entities. [Internet]. Available from: https://diversedaily.com/legal-rights-of-digital-entities-exploring-legal-frameworks-for-recognizing-and-protecting-the-rights-of-digital-entities-in-the-context-of-digital-immortality/ Winnicott, D.W. [Internet]. Available from: https://web.mit.edu/allanmc/www/winnicott1.pdf Cell Press. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(22)00806-6 The Conversation. Tech firms are making computer chips with human cells—is it ethical? [Internet]. Available from: https://theconversation.com/tech-firms-are-making-computer-chips-with-human-cells-is-it-ethical-183394 Previous article Next article Enigma back to

< Back to Issue 4 Why Our Concept of Colours is Broken by Selin Duran 1 July 2023 Edited by Tanya Kovacevic and Megane Boucherat Illustrated by Aizere Malibek The world that surrounds us is made from a combination of three main colours: red, yellow and blue. Known as the primary colours, it's the first thing we learn in primary school art class. In illusions, however, our concept of colours becomes warped and fails us. The only question is how do we fix it? Take the infamous colour-changing dress of 2015. This dress became an internet sensation due to its ambiguity of colour with the major question being “Is the dress black and blue or white and gold?” The dress, despite causing many online debates, is actually black and blue. Nevertheless this debate raises an important question about colours. Why do we see different colours in the same image? Let's begin with colour theory. Colour theory is a set of guidelines that artists use when mixing colours within the spectrum. With the intention of provoking different psychological responses, colours are used to either complement or contrast one another [1]. We see this through the infamous dress - with black and blue complimenting each, then gold and white. Our highly subjective perception allows us to see visually appealing combinations of colours juxtaposed to contrasting combinations. However, what we also need to consider are the light sources being used. Ranging from natural light to blue light and other artificial lighting, the light that we are exposed to can alter our perspective of colour. On our devices, we see colours through a series of red, green, and blue pixels that combine to make new colours for every image that we see [2]. Similarly, the frequent manipulation of our devices’ brightness also contributes to different colours being shown on the screens. These are the primary reasons why the famous dress was perceived so differently by everyone: each device shows a different version of the same colour depending on its display settings, which affects how many red, green and blue pixels there are. In addition to the colour theory, another effect— the Bezold Effect—is at its peak with the infamous dress. The Bezold Effect is an optical illusion where a colour’s appearance is affected by the presence of colours that surround the object [3]. For this dress, it’s seen through the shadows that form on and around the bodice. With brighter surroundings, such as the sun or an overly brightened screen, the blue from the dress appears gold to the eye, while the black appears white. The dress reverts to its original colours when the screen is darkened or artificial light is used. Circling back to colour theory, the changes in colours aren’t randomly allocated: they are opposing colours of the colour wheel. The wheel is a visual illustration of colours arranged by their wavelength, used to display the relationship of primary colours to their corresponding secondary colours [4]. With blue contrasting a yellow or gold, the changes in lighting perfectly display the contrasting colours on the wheel. The fascinating nature of colours is not something we can fix. In the era of digital displays and evolving technologies, we can’t see things the “right” way because there is no notable “right” or “wrong” way to look at the world. The dress is just one of those illusions that changes depending on the context and surroundings that it’s placed in. You can manipulate these colours and force them to change by physically changing the brightness on a device. So out of curiosity, I decided to conduct a little experiment of my own through an Instagram poll to see what my friends thought of this dress. While only 37 people participated, it was still fun to see what would happen with the votes; however, I was surprised to see the results after 24 hours. I expected a majority to choose the “real” colour of the dress, since the dress has been around in the media for a while and the answer is also online, but people still had contrasting opinions about the dress. With only 54% of people seeing black and blue and 46% white and gold, I began questioning our vastly different perceptions. The answer always seemed obvious as the dress was always black and blue not white and gold but that didn’t mean that other people saw what I saw. My favourite response came from a friend who saw the dress as blue and gold and after that, my opinion changed. For me, the dress is now blue and with tints of gold and I can’t see it any other way. This truly goes to show that there’s more behind the dress than what meets the eye. When I first saw the image my brightness was at the lowest it could possibly be and now after looking at the image enough, it’s just blue and gold. The ambiguity of this image is what makes the dress the best example of a real-life illusion. Other colour combinations act the same way in different lighting, but what we see is completely dependent on our perceptions, and every now and then, it’s always fun to put up a debate. References Eliassen MM. Colour theory. Salem Press Encyclopedia [Internet]. 2023 Jan 1 [cited 2023 May 13]; Available from: https://discovery.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=30f4180b-d38d-38e6-95df-fcf469ab5c8a Mertes, A. (2021, February 23). Why Computer Monitors Display the Same Colors Differently . https://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/ . https://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/promo-university/why-monitors-display-different-colors.htm#:~:text=The%20pixels%20are%20in%20some,shows%20up%20on%20the%20screen Lasikadmin. (2022, June 2). What is Bezold Effect? | Useful Bezold Effect. LASIK of Nevada. https://lasikofnv.com/blog/test-your-vision-by-bezold-effect/#:~:text=What%20is%20the%20Bezold%20Effect,one%20to%20the%20human%20eye Understanding color theory: the color wheel and finding complementary colors . (n.d.). https://www.invisionapp.com/inside-design/understanding-color-theory-the-color-wheel-and-finding-complementary-colors/ Previous article Next article back to MIRAGE

< Back to Issue 7 Pointing the Way: A Triangular View of the World by Ingrid Sefton 22 October 2024 edited by Hendrick Lin illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin You, my friend, are living in a world created by triangles. Since the dawn of time, this humble three-sided polygon has quietly shaped the evolution of human civilisation. As you gaze around, you can likely spot a triangle or two tucked within your surroundings. This may be of no surprise to you. Externally, the triangle governs the material construction of our world, underpinning the foundations of countless engineering and architectural designs. Yet these more obvious physical constructions are just one contribution of this pointy, three-sided shape to modern society. Indeed, it is where the role of the triangle remains invisible that it harnesses the most power. Triangles have played an integral role in sailing and modern navigation systems, having enabled us to explore all corners of the Earth. Beyond this, let us not forget the massive contributions this shape has made to the development of 3D modelling, used everywhere from graphic design and animation to CGI. All thanks to the simple, unassuming triangle. The physical, the navigational and the digital. Three key sides of the triangle’s influence in shaping the modern world. The Physical The triangle's importance in the physical world stems from its inner strength. Unbeknownst to many, it is the strongest two-dimensional shape that exists, with its power amplified in three-dimensional polyhedrons derived from triangles. How can this unique strength be explained? Consider applying force to one corner, or apex, of a triangle. This force is distributed down either side of the triangle and as these sides are compressed, the base is stretched outwards. Weight can therefore be evenly dispersed across the shape, preventing it from bending and breaking (Saint Louis Science Center, 2020). It is for good reason that the triangular shape underpins many fundamental principles of architecture and design. Perhaps the most iconic of the structures that utilise this shape are the Pyramids of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Constructed in the early 25th Century BCE, they housed the tombs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs and are the last remaining Wonder that exists today. The tallest of the Pyramids, known as the Great Pyramid, originally soared as high as 147 metres above the ground, though today erosion has reduced it to 138 metres (Encylopedia Britannica, 2024a). This architectural feat was monumental for its time, and to this day, how exactly the Pyramids were constructed remains a hotly contested debate amongst archeologists and engineers. One proposition is that large ramps were used in conjunction with a complex system of ropes, sledges and levers to haul stone blocks up (Handwerk, 2023). Whatever the method of construction may have been, these ancient wonders have stood the test of time for over 4500 years - a remnant of one of humanity's first advanced civilisations that exemplifies the scale, strength and resilience of construction made possible by triangles. Triangles also play a crucial role in the construction of seemingly dissimilar shapes. This is highlighted in the case of geodesic structures - spheres constructed from a network of triangles approximating a rounded shape, like a soccer ball. First developed in the 20th Century by architect Richard Buckminster Fuller, these domes are lightweight and able to distribute stress across large, arching structures (Encylopedia Britannica, 2024b). Since Fuller’s earliest constructions, these domes have been widely utilised in the construction of stadiums, planetariums and even "glamping" accommodations. One notable example is the Eden Project - the world's largest biodome botanical garden in the United Kingdom, housing thousands of plant species over 5.5 acres of land (Eden Project, 2024). The interconnectedness of the triangles allows for maximum sunlight exposure across wide spaces, creating an ideal environment for plant photosynthesis and cultivation. Intriguingly, Fuller's use of triangles in this innovative manner led to a breakthrough in the far-away field of synthetic chemistry. Scientists Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley discovered the nanomaterial Buckminsterfullerene, or “the Buckyball”, after the scientists realised the structure's similarity to Fuller's geodesic spheres (The Stanford Libraries, 2024). This led to the discovery of a new class of materials known as fullerenes. The scientists were subsequently awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for elucidating this molecule’s structure (The Stanford Libraries, 2024). Balancing power with versatility, triangles form the crux of our built environments at both an atomic and architectural level. The Navigational Remember those sine and cosine formulas your maths teacher insisted had important real world applications? Turns out they weren’t kidding. Triangulation is the process of finding an unknown location of an object by forming a triangle between this object and two other reference points. Sine, cosine and tangent, the main trigonometric ratios, are used to relate the sides and angles formed within a right triangle and hence, determine the position of an unknown point. For centuries, humans have turned to triangles as a means to find their ways. Sailors, in particular, have long used landmarks and celestial objects like the stars to orient themselves at sea. By observing the angle between known locations (or stars) and using basic trigonometry, navigators could calculate distances and determine their precise location. Moving to a more global scale of navigation becomes a bit more complicated, as the Earth is a sphere and not a flat surface (although some may beg to differ…). A more advanced form of triangulation known as trilateration underpins the Global Positioning System (GPS) in order to determine three-dimensional coordinates of a receiver. Instead of angles, GPS utilises the time taken for radio signals sent from satellites to reach a receiving device on Earth. A connected system of navigation satellites circles the Earth, each sending out signals with the location and time it was sent by that satellite. By measuring the delay between the time of signal reception and the broadcast time, the distance from the receiver to each satellite can be computed (Federal Aviation Administration, 2024). Once distances to at least three satellites are known, the receiving device can determine its own three-dimensional position, employing similar techniques to triangulation. GPS data is not only used to guide your Google Map directions. Analysing the positions of satellite stations and their movements is a crucial tool for monitoring volcanic and seismic activity (Murray & Svarc, 2017). Recent breakthroughs have even suggested that there may be a future for utilising the GPS to detect earthquakes before they happen (Rao, 2023). From the seas to the skies, triangles allow us to push the boundaries of exploration while always guiding us home to safety. The Digital What does connect-the-dots have to do with triangles or 3D modelling? A connect-the-dots drawing begins with nothing but some labelled dots. Yet as each dot is joined by a straight line, a complex and curved picture emerges. The more dots you use, the smoother the picture looks. Consider now trying to design a three-dimensional surface. Just as you might use dots to approximate a curve, triangles serve as building blocks for constructing complex surfaces. By taking enough triangles and joining them at their edges, we too can approximate intricate and multidimensional structures. In 3D modelling, objects are represented as meshes - models consisting of vertices (points in 3D space) connected by edges to form polygons and thus, the surface of an object (Stanton, 2023). To define a flat surface oriented in a plane, a minimum of three distinct points are needed. Triangles are the simplest shape for constructing these planes as they are coplanar, meaning any three points in space will always form a flat surface (Licata & Licata, 2015). This makes them perfect for modelling complex 3D shapes out of interconnected triangles. Animation, gaming, graphic design and computer generated imagery (CGI) in movies are just some of the many varied applications that utilise these mesh modelling techniques to create intricate 3D models, with curved and highly detailed surfaces. Additionally, there exist efficient computer algorithms that are optimised to dissect objects into hundreds of thousands of flat triangles. A complex, digital representation of any object can therefore be easily portrayed as a simple collection of points and triangles. Combined with their simple geometric properties, triangles can then be processed quickly by modern Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), optimising their performance in real-time applications. Add in lighting, shading and smooth deformation, and you will find yourself with an intricate, three-dimensional model. Pointing the Way Forward For too long, the triangle has been overshadowed by its more popular cousin, the square. Yet, what is a square? Two triangles put together. The simplicity of this three-sided shape allows it to integrate within our society, with its contributions often invisible to the naked eye. From the physical, to the navigational and the digital, modern human society is built on the triangle. Maybe that trigonometry class wasn’t so pointless after all. References Eden Project (2024). Eden Project's Mission . https://www.edenproject.com/mission/origins Encylopedia Britannica (2024a). Great Pyramid of Giza . https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Pyramid-of-Giza Encylopedia Britannica (2024b). Geodesic Dome. https://www.britannica.com/technology/geodesic-dome Federal Aviation Administration (2024). Satellite Navigation - GPS - How It Works . United States Department of Transportation. https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/gps/howitworks Handwerk, B. (2023). The Pyramids at Giza were built to endure an eternity—but how? National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/giza-pyramids Licata, J., & Licata, A. (2015). From triangles to computer graphics . ABC Science. https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/06/10/4251713.htm Murray, J. R., & Svarc, J. (2017). Global Positioning System Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis Conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards Program. Seismological Research Letters , 88 (3), 916-925. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220160204 Rao, R. (2023). GPS satellites may be able to detect earthquakes before they happen . Space. https://www.space.com/earthquake-prediction-gps-satellite-data Saint Louis Science Center (2020). The Secret Strength of Triangles . https://www.slsc.org/the-secret-strength-of-triangles/ Stanton, A. (2023). Exploring the World of 3D Modeling: Solid vs. Mesh Modeling . Cadmore. https://cadmore.com/blog/solid-vs-mesh-modeling-differences The Stanford Libraries (2024). What is a geodesic dome? Stanford University. https://exhibits.stanford.edu/bucky/feature/what-is-a-geodesic-dome Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 4 Interviewing Dr Karen Freilich by Rachel Ko 1 July 2023 Edited by Caitlin Kane Illustrated by Pia Barraza Science in the real world is never straight-forward. The realm of medicine and health is particularly intricate, riddled with myths and marvels. This makes the healthcare journey a difficult one to navigate, both for the patient, and for the provider. It is undeniably a field where an ever-evolving myriad of factors makes the bedside experience vastly different to the textbooks. In my first year studying medicine, I am constantly realising that a strong understanding of the fundamentals is often a saving grace, while learning to dispel the mirage of medicine as a simple science. Enter Humerus Hacks , a podcast recommended to me in the first week of medical school by peers who had walked the treacherous road before. A guiding light in the murky waters of medical education, Karen and Sarah’s playful banter lays out high-yield medical content with catchy mnemonics and gracious advice. In this interview, we had the special opportunity to talk to Dr Karen Freilich, one of the hosts of Humerus Hacks , about her journey in medicine so far as a young GP, and the story of how she created a podcast that masters the art of science communication in a perfect marriage of education and entertainment. Tell us about your journey with science, and your career so far. I’ve just completed my GP Fellowship training after about 12 years of study. It’s a relief to be done —medicine is a long slog! I’ve had a brilliant time and been fortunate to take part in exciting studies. I took some time off clinical medicine to complete a Masters of Reproductive and Sexual Health Research in London (LSHTM) as well as completing a Diploma of Obstetrics (DRANZCOG). I currently teach at the University of Melbourne’s Medical School as a tutor in Sexual Health, and write and train high school sexual health educators through Elephant Ed. I work as a GP most days of the week, in a clinic with a focus on sexual and reproductive health and I’m a proud medical abortion and contraception provider. I’m also fortunate to work at Monash in the Sexual Medicine and Therapy Clinic, and work together with the Australasian Society for HIV, Viral Hepatitis and Sexual Health Medicine (ASHM). It’s a tricky balance wearing a number of hats, but I love the diversity. Unsurprisingly everything I do is focused in sexual and reproductive health through clinical work, education, advising and science communication. My career is certainly tailor-made to my interests and passion, and took quite some time to get to this point! I love being able to educate on both a one-on-one and broader level on sexual and reproductive health care, particularly through a reproductive justice lens. What was the inspiration behind Humerus Hacks ? In the early years of medical school, my mate Sarah and I used to spend hours and hours trying to memorise different antibiotics and the differences between them. It felt incomprehensible to have to learn not only a new science, but an entirely new language behind it. It felt like a Duolingo course! So in order to scrape through exams, we made silly little stories to try and remember the differences between gentamicin, amoxicillin etc.. Fast forward a few years and Sarah and I ended up running a weekly study group for the year below us, filled with our mnemonics and silly stories. We developed a bit of a cult following (if I say so myself!). It seemed there was a real appetite for otherwise tedious and dry medical education made fun and entertaining. In final year, we both ended up on placements requiring huge drives. We turned to podcasts for ‘edutainment’ — and found there simply were none. So we did what everyone in 2016 was doing, bought a microphone and recorded our own. We were a bit mortified at the start and convinced we wouldn’t get internships if our future employers heard us swearing and being inappropriate online, so we hid our faces and were anonymous with our names. Fortunately it turned out we had nothing to be nervous about, and Humerus Hacks was a hit. Sarah is a musical genius and recorded the intro song with her band. It’s now been over 50 episodes and over 150,000 downloads. We’re often in the iTunes Medical Podcasts Top 10! The inspiration has and always will be pure study laziness — trying to make studying more interesting, fun and accessible and ultimately, more memorable. What is the process of developing and recording an episode? Me, Sarah, or another co-host or friend (Callum, Bridget, Robbie and Dan to name a few!) sitting on a couch with a microphone and chinwagging about a topic. If we’re lucky, maybe some prep. I’d love to suggest it’s more fancy than that! I have brilliant colleagues who play an integral role. Alex edits our episodes and does a brilliant job. And Bella creates fantastic art for the episodes. Sometimes I play around on Canva too for some social media. Shout out as well to our friends who helped with some graphic design and audio. It’s definitely a team effort, and so many people to thank for their ongoing contributions and support. What is your relationship with your audience like? Our audience sends us messages and emails all the time — even if we haven’t made an episode in months! It’s a joy to receive any messages and warms our hearts every time. We get the most delightful and lovely messages. We also get a lot of requests which I wish we could keep up with more, the irony of doing our own exams over the past few years! We try to respond to all messages and keep up with requests. Knowing that our silly little mnemonics has helped anyone with exams is a huge joy. How has science communication evolved since you began? Mnemonics have been a huge part of medicine for a very long time. In fact, I have my uncle’s Medical Mnemonic book from 1958! Some of them have aged terribly, unsurprisingly, but many we still use to this day. So, we are far from inventing the wheel. In saying that, the boom of social media and podcasts over the past few years has lent itself to subspecialised Instagram pages, YouTube channels and more podcasts than I could have ever imagined. Making medical education (and science communication) fun has become much more mainstream and accepted as a genuine study tool. Who knew, making dry education entertaining actually works…! What has been the biggest challenge in your science communication journey? Hands down, time. I run Humerus Hacks with a group of excellent friends and colleagues, but we all happen to be medical students or doctors. Unsurprisingly, it means we are all always bogged down with shift work, exams, and burn out. Humerus Hacks is a labour of love. So we make an effort if and when we can, without any time pressure. I wish we had more time! What role would you say science communication plays in your daily practice? I’m a GP with a special interest in sexual medicine as well as a sexual health tutor for medical students. I also write and train individuals to run high school sexual health education. I’ve also been fortunate to be a guest host on ABC Breakfast Radio under ‘Doctor Breakfast’ providing science communication for a number of medical topics. So, it plays a huge role in my daily practice! I particularly enjoy the interplay of small scale science communication through one-on-one patient interactions compared with larger scale communication through radio, teaching and podcasts. They balance each other really well, and I enjoy the individualised, tailored approach whilst simultaneously thinking of the broader public health messaging. What role would you say science communication plays in society generally? There is so much misinformation floating around. As a huge fan of social media and TikTok myself, I can see how these avenues can be both a wonderful source of information but simultaneously promote unnuanced, oversimplified and often blatantly incorrect health messaging. Social media (including podcasts) provides a really accessible, often free avenue for science information that is otherwise inaccessible. However, we have a responsibility to ensure the information is correct, up to date, and safe. Social media loves a quick snap messaging, but science is almost always more nuanced and complex. A 30 second TikTok often unsurprisingly misses the mark! So, accurate and accessible science communication is the key — the hard thing is making it fun and interesting. What are your immediate goals in science communication this year, and what do you hope to achieve in science communication in the long-term? Great question! I am thoroughly enjoying my career balance at the moment. It’s a great mix of GP clinic, sexual medicine and therapy clinical work, sexual health teaching, and radio/podcasting. I’d love to make more Humerus Hacks episodes now that I’ve finished my own training and have (hopefully) both more knowledge and time! I’ve put together a SPHERE Sexual and Reproductive Health podcast focusing on upskilling clinicians to provide medical abortion and contraception in primary care. I am also loving radio work and would love to keep going with this. I may or may not delve into the TikTok world… watch this space! Long term, hopefully ongoing science communication in the field of sexual and reproductive healthcare. What advice would you give to students exploring the world of science communication? Social media is a game changer that had only just begun when I was a student. TikTok, Instagram etc all provide a free and accessibly way to both gain knowledge and skills, and to educate others. Science students in all disciplines have such incredibly knowledge and insight, and if you’re interested, there’s a willing and enthusiastic audience out there. The phrase ‘see one, do one, teach one’ forever rings true. Teaching and providing science communication helps your own education, and has always been my favourite learning tool. Finally, and I cannot emphasise this enough, being a student is long, tedious, and exhausting. Enjoy the process and look after yourself and your colleagues as a priority! ------------------- It is undeniable that Humerus Hacks is a project succeeding on its steadfast mission to uncover the mirage of medicine. Through a blend of education and entertainment, it reveals the intricate realities of science in health, as a complex and ever-changing landscape that demands a strong foundation of knowledge and willingness to adapt. We extend our heartfelt gratitude to Dr Karen Frielich, for not only agreeing to talk to us, but also for all of her work to demystify the healthcare journey, both for the professional, and for the patient. You can check out 'Humerus Hacks' on Spotify , on Apple Music , or online! Previous article Next article back to MIRAGE

< Back to Issue 5 On the Folklore of Fossils Ethan Bisogni 24 October 2023 Edited by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin We inhabit an incredible world, one shaped by the ancient mysteries of our past and the imaginative stories they inspire. Throughout human history, we have tried to comprehend the bigger picture - using mythology and science to explain the presence of any natural phenomena we can observe. Between the movement of the stars and shape of the land, most scientific explanations of our world share a fascinating mythical counterpart. One particular area of science that has been bestowed with some truly incredible folklore is palaeontology. A History of Palaeontology To best understand some of the amazing mythologies surrounding fossils, we should first briefly explore the history of modern palaeontology. Some of the earliest attempts at understanding fossils can be seen in ancient Greece and Rome, where philosophers such as Herodotus understood that the presence of petrified shells indicated the recession of a past marine environment (Forli & Guerrini, 2022a). However, much of the groundwork for modern palaeontology was only developed in the late 17th century (Boudreau et al., 2023). Regarded as one of the most influential figures in modern geology, Nicholas Steno had outlined the Principles of Stratigraphy in his 1669 Dissertationis Prodromus - to be used as a jumping board for many earth scientists to come (Berthault, 2022). In the early 1800’s, William Smith had utilised his fossil knowledge to differentiate and match layers of rock known as strata, published in Strata Identified by Organised Fossils (Scott, 2008). And perhaps one of the largest contributions to modern palaeontology, Darwin's theory of evolution outlined in On the Origin of Species allowed for natural scientists to better understand the evolution of species throughout time. Considering how much of what we know about modern palaeontology was only published in the last 350 years, it becomes clear why so many cultures had developed their own interesting interpretations of fossils. From magical spells to infernal beasts, these legends highlight the prominent ideologies of their time. So let us explore some of the more interesting and diverse fossil myths from the ages. Merlinia To start, we will be discussing the folklore origin of Merlinia, an extinct genus of trilobite from the Early Ordivician age, 470 million years ago (British Geological Survey, n.d.). Trilobites were small sea-faring invertebrates who first appeared following the Cambrian Explosion, and were prominent throughout the fossil record until their unfortunate extinction 250 million years ago during the Late Permian mass extinction (American Museum of Natural History, n.d.). According to the British Geological Survey, this genus of trilobite was extensively found throughout the rocks of Carmarthen - a Welsh town famous for being the supposed birthplace of Merlin, the legendary wizard and advisor to King Arthur (‘P550303’, 2009). Often mistaken by the townspeople as stone butterflies, these fossils were naturally attributed to Merlin and thought to be the product of a petrification spell (American Museum of Natural History, n.d.). Whilst disheartening for the butterflies, the real trilobites behind the myth likely faced a much more wicked and sorrowful demise. Snakestones Much like Merlinia, snakestones were also named after a prominent figure with a habit for turning creatures to stone. Saint Hilda of Whitby was the abbess of the local town monastery during the sixteen hundreds, and was widely credited for the creation of these fossils - which are otherwise known as Hildoceras, after herself (Lotzof, n.d.). With the town facing a plague of snakes, St Hilda was said to have performed a miracle that petrified the serpents and forced them to coil into the fossils we see today (National Museums Scotland, n.d.). These stony serpents however are really just ammonites, a group of molluscs that went extinct alongside the dinosaurs 66 million years ago (Osterloff, n.d.). The legend of St Hilda isn’t the only instance of snake-repellent folklore either, with St Patrick earning himself a holiday after supposedly clearing the snakes out of Ireland. Much of the rise of European anguine-based legends can be attributed to growing Christian influences during the second millennium. The biblical depiction of snakes as tempting and disingenuous has caused them to be portrayed harshly throughout older western media (Migdol, 2021). Unsurprisingly, this isn't the only time that palaeontology and Christianity have crossed paths. The Devil Perhaps the most infamous figure in human culture, the Devil is outlined in Christian doctrine as the embodiment of sin and evil. References to their influence can be found throughout human history, and have naturally found their way into geological folklore. Many geological features have been attributed to a satanic presence, thought to be remnants from when the Devil would walk the earth (Forli & Guerrini, 2022b). Gryphaea was a fossil widely mistaken as the authentic nails of Satan himself, hence nicknamed the ‘Devil’s Nails’, and was used as a proxy to determine areas of evil (Forli & Guerrini, 2022b). However, these fossils were not the byproduct of Satan’s occasional beauty treatments, but rather an extinct genus of mollusc from the early Jurassic, 200 million years ago (Forli & Guerrini, 2022b). Nail clippings were not the only features observed that people considered to be a sign of the Devil’s unholy pilgrimage. Devilish hoof-shaped steps embedded into stone have been reported throughout the world. Referred to as ‘il-passi tax-xitan’ by the Maltese, meaning ‘the devil's footsteps’, these tracks were considered further proof of the Devil's presence amongst mankind (Duffin & Davidson, 2011). In Malta these footprints were really just fossilised echinoids - innocent former sea urchins facing unkind accusations of being demonic (Duffin & Davidson, 2011). That's not to say all Maltese fossils were considered unholy: some 16th century priests conversely believed them to be the footsteps of St Paul the Apostle, following his shipwrecking on the island in the 1st century (Mayor & Sarjeant, 2001). Dragons Dragons are some of the most well known mythical creatures, with many cultures around the world having their own rendition of a mystic dragon-like beast. Unlike some of the other legends explored so far, it is unlikely that fossilised remains were the initial cause of this myth, but were rather used as evidence to cement it in truth. Dragons were considered prominent creatures throughout the Indian mountains, with evidence of dragon hunts being displayed in the ancient city of Paraka (Mayor, 2000). Apollonius of Tyana, a 1st century Greek philosopher, was said to have observed these dragons during his passage through the Siwalik Hills - an Indian range known for its preservation of larger fossils (Mayor, 2000). Described by Apollonius as considerable tusked creatures, these dragon remains were more than likely the fossils of extinct elephants and giraffids - such as Elephas hysudricus or Sivatherium giganteum (Mayor, 2000). India is not the only country to have experienced this phenomenon either, with many Asian and European societies said to have also continuously misdiagnose large vertebrate fossils as dragon bones. Whether it is mischievous spellcasting or the indication of a demonic evil, myths surrounding fossils have existed throughout centuries of human society. These legends provide a fascinating window into the creative minds of past cultures, and their beliefs at the time. While modern palaeontologists have proven these legends to be no more than captivating stories, it is important to view this folklore with a certain understanding and respect. These early attempts at trying to understand the world around us provides an interesting insight into human nature, and our innate desire to search for answers. References American Museum of Natural History. (n.d.) End of the Line - The demise of the Trilobites . American Museum of Natural History. https://www.amnh.org/research/paleontology/collections/fossil-invertebrate-collection/trilobite-website/trilobite-localities/end-of-the-line-the-demise-of-the-trilobites Berthault, G. (2002). Analysis of Main Principles of Stratigraphy on the Basis of Experimental Data . Lithology and Mineral Resources, 22(5), 442-446. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020220232661 Boudreau, D., McDaniel, M., Sprout, E., & Turgeon, A. (2023). Paleontology . National Geographic Society. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/paleontology/ British Geological Survey (n.d.). Trilobites . https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossilsand-geological-time/trilobites/ Duffin, C. J., & Davidson, J. P. (2011). Geology and the dark side . Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 122(1), 7-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2010.08.002 Forli, M., & Guerrini, A. (2022). Bivalvia: Devil’s Nails, Reflections Between Superstition and Science. In The History of Fossils Over Centuries (pp. 181-206). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04687-2_2 Forli, M., & Guerrini, A. (2022). Fossilia and Fossils: Considerations on Their Understanding Over the Centuries . In The History of Fossils Over Centuries (pp. 5-25). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04687-2_12 Lotzof, K. (n.d.). Snakestones: The Myth, Magic, and Science of Ammonites . Natural History Museum. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/snakestones-ammonites-myth-magic-science.html Mayor, A. (2000). CHAPTER 3 Ancient Discoveries of Giant Bones . In The First Fossil Hunters (pp. 104-156). Princeton University Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7s6mm.11 Mayor, A., & Sarjeant, W.A.S. (2001). The Folklore of Footprints in Stone: From Classical Antiquity to the Present . An International Journal for Plant and Animal Traces, 8(2), 143-163. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7s6mm.11 Migdol, E., Morrison, E., & Grollemond, L. (2021). What Did People Believe about Animals in the Middle Ages? Getty Conservation Institute. https://www.getty.edu/news/what-did-people-believe-about-animals-in-the-middle-ages/ National Museums Scotland (n.d.). Snakestones . https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our- collections/stories/natural-sciences/fossil-tales/fossil-tales-menu/snakestones/ Osterloff, E. (n.d.). What Is an Ammonite? Natural History Museum. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-an-ammonite.html P550303. (2009). British Geological Survey . http://geoscenic.bgs.ac.uk/asset- bank/action/viewAsset?id=113713&index=4&total=6&view=viewSearchItem Scott, M. (2008). William Smith (1769-1839) . NASA Earth Observatory. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/WilliamSmith Wicked back to

< Back to Issue 10 How Population Biobanks Shed Light on Disease by Jason Chien 2 June 2026 Illustrated by Chris Cao Edited by Cady Jacobson Imagine yourself as a researcher. Perhaps your work requires biological samples from a rare disease, but finding and collecting these samples from patients is difficult. Or maybe your research depends on comparing a person’s current cell or tissue data to what it was ten years ago, but you cannot afford to wait a decade. Thankfully, there are biobanks: specialised facilities that store biological samples and other relevant medical information from donors, while also distributing samples to researchers regardless of where they are based. Biobanks also act as data custodians, de-identifying and anonymising patient information. In addition, they work with Institutional Review Boards (essentially, university or agency ethics boards) to review the merits of each access request before deciding whether to deliver samples to applicants (1). For some biobanks and sample types, samples can even be returned after being used for research (2). There are biobanks storing non-human data, such as the Svalbard Global Seed Vault or Australia’s Victorian Conservation Seedbank, which store viable seeds of many plant species and their various strains (3). Even within biomedical biobanks, they vary in the types of samples stored and by extension, their intended and fulfilled functions, as well as why they were built (4).There are disease-specific biobanks storing samples relevant to specific diseases; for example, a cardiovascular biobank that specialises in storing tissue immediately following a patient’s death, such that it can be used for physiological studies (2). However, this article will focus specifically on population biobanks, a subset of biomedical biobanks, in the context of disease investigation. Ethical issues surrounding biobanking will not be a major focus, including matters such as how sample donors provide consent for the use of their samples during research (4). Population biobanks store tissue samples, plus health and personal information of donors. Large sites have sample counts ranging from hundreds of thousands to millions (1). Population biobanks aim to have enough samples to represent the huge variation among a region or country’s population, and store many parameters of each sample donor, such as lifestyle data (e.g. cardiovascular disease or smoking status) and omics data (5). Biomedical scientists study many aspects of what goes on in human cells and tissues, down to the molecular level, due to their relevance for our understanding of disease. These factors include our genetic makeup, regulation and expression of genes, as well as the effects of environmental factors and metabolism (6). In such omics approaches, our existing knowledge of the complete set of genes in species such as humans allows information from an individual’s own genome to be generated and then compared or combined with data from other individuals. This gives rise to approaches such as genomics (concerning genes), proteomics (concerning proteins) and metabolomics (concerning molecules involved in metabolism). Large subsets of this data from individuals, as well as population-level variations associated with specific diseases, can be used for research. For example, the number of genes involved in cancer alone can easily exceed thousands (7). Large sample quantities allow researchers doing many different investigations to identify factors correlated with disease resistance and susceptibility to many diseases (1). This complements methods of investigating disease mechanisms involving specific genes and molecules by helping researchers identify candidate genes and molecules for further investigation. As a consequence, many samples in population biobanks are actually from healthy donors rather than hospital patients (5). Beyond providing samples, some of these large biobanks are also direct providers of omics data. While biobanks are not necessary for generating omics data from one or a few individuals, they enable the collection of data from enough samples to represent the diversity of the population and capture variants as rare as those in 0.1% of the population (6). Because of rigorous sample processing and quality control procedures standardised across biobanks, the omics data generated from samples collected by different biobanks can also be more easily combined by researchers to yield insights (1). Furthermore, as new higher-resolution biotechnology develops, they can be used to investigate samples collected in the past (1). For example, the UK biobank enrolled 500,000 participants for its first cohort in 2006, collecting blood, urine, and saliva samples, in addition to substantial lifestyle data and physical measurements for each participant (5). Though there is no flashy silver-bullet discovery like penicillin directly resulting from the biobank, it has greatly increased our knowledge of which genes and proteins to target when designing new drugs, along with which genetic variants increase our predisposition to a range of diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases (8). Population biobanks are huge, long-term investments. For example, funding from the UK government and various non-profits for the UK biobank have exceeded £90 million British Pounds from its inception to 2014 (1). Reasons for their construction include understanding the mechanisms of disease, translating research into interventions, improving health outcomes, and promoting biotechnology (1). Population biobanks that are able to effectively engage sample donors can generate population data to support research into diseases that most heavily affect a country (1). The majority of the world’s biobank datasets are still composed primarily of individuals with white Northern European ancestry (9), and using data from one population can be significantly less effective for identifying risk factors in another population. This limitation serves as a driver for developing countries to build their own population biobanks (9). Part of the reason most biobanks are built is to serve as a national public good, with data made accessible to both academic researchers at affordable rates and to industry researchers (1, 10). Large population biobanks are usually run as a public entity or as public-private partnerships with a large proportion of public funding (10). In fact, even with cost recovery measures that charge users for accessing biobank samples — often with higher rates for industry researchers — revenues still fall below operating costs (1). That said, biobanks create benefits beyond their own countries, and multinational collaborations have expanded their scale and reach (1), allowing researchers to access omics data and request samples from biobanks overseas. With biobanking infrastructures in place, multinational collaborations have emerged that facilitate data sharing between research institutions across different countries through consortia – formal collaborations between participating institutions that establish common research goals and reduce competition over the use of specialised facilities (11). In other words, they seek to minimise situations in which multiple research groups inadvertently work on the exact same project, leading to an inefficient allocation of resources. One example is the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC). This agreement creates a collaboration framework for data exchange in around 200 large-scale cancer research projects, with participating biobanks from Europe, China, Australia, USA, and other countries. Participating biobanks include large population biobanks, but also other types such as disease-specific biobanks (12). To finalise, biobanks are not simply a place where biological samples are stored. They are dynamic entities that can be scaled up and down, places where samples are sent in and out, and they face financial pressures as national research priorities change. They are places where innovation occurs in a wide range of areas, from cryostorage to management of digital information. The power of population biobanks and their research potential lies in their cohort sizes. Hopefully, biobanks will continue to generate valuable new discoveries as newly established cohorts around the world begin to mature. References Chalmers D, Nicol D, Kaye J. et al. Has the biobank bubble burst? Withstanding the challenges for sustainable biobanking in the digital era. BMC Med Ethics. 2016;17(1):39. doi:10.1186/s12910-016-0124-2. PMID: 27405974; PMCID: PMC4941036. Yamada, K.A., Patel, A.Y., Ewald, G.A. et al . How to Build an Integrated Biobank: The Washington University Translational Cardiovascular Biobank & Repository Experience. Clinical And Translational Science . 2013;6(3):226-231. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12032 Seed deposit at Doomsday Vault ensures Australia’s plant future. ABC News. 2018 Mar 1. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-03-01/australia-makes-deposit-in-to-doomsday-vault-to-ensure-survival/9496308 De Souza, Yvonne G.; Greenspan, John S. Biobanking past, present and future: responsibilities and benefits. AIDS. 2013 ; 27(3):303-312. doi: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e32835c1244 Busby H, Martin P. Biobanks, national identity and imagined communities: The case of UK biobank. Science as Culture. 2006 Sep;15(3):237–51. doi:10.1080/09505430600890693 Murtagh, M.J., Demir, I., Harris, J.R. et al. Realizing the promise of population biobanks: a new model for translation. Hum Genet . 2011;130:333–345. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-011-1036-3 Ferolito BR, Dashti H, Giambartolomei C, Peloso GM, Golden DJ, Gravel-Pucillo K, et al. Leveraging large-scale biobanks for therapeutic target discovery. Human Genetics and Genomics Advances. 2026 Jan;7(1):100556. doi:10.1016/j.xhgg.2025.100556 Szustakowski JD, Balasubramanian S, Kvikstad E, Khalid S, Bronson PG, Sasson A, et al. Advancing human genetics research and drug discovery through exome sequencing of the UK Biobank. Nat Genet. 2021 Jul;53(7):942–8. doi:10.1038/s41588-021-00885-0 Rudan I, Marušić A, Campbell H. Developing biobanks in developing countries. J Glob Health. 2011 Jun;1(1):2–4. PubMed PMID: 23198094; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3484738. Caulfield T, Burningham S, Joly Y, Master Z, Shabani M, Borry P, et al. A review of the key issues associated with the commercialization of biobanks. Journal of Law and the Biosciences. 2014 Mar 1;1(1):94–110. doi:10.1093/jlb/lst004 Nature Index. 2021. How to be part of a research consortium. Available from: https://www.nature.com/nature-index/news/how-to-be-part-of-a-research-consortium Hudson (Chairperson) TJ, Anderson W, Aretz A, Barker AD, Bell C, Bernabé RR, et al. International network of cancer genome projects. Nature. 2010 Apr;464(7291):993–8. doi:10.1038/nature08987 Previous article back to Fact & Fiction Next article

< Back to Print Editions Print Edition 2: Issue 4, 5 and 6 2023/2024 ABOUT THIS EDITION In various languages, the word ‘science’ can be traced back to its Latin origins of simply meaning ‘to know’. Today, explorers, curators, and researchers of scientific knowledge understand this as a systematic acquisition of information, with observations made and theories tested as we try to comprehend our world. For true advancement, science requires reciprocity: the mutual sharing between ‘scientists’ and individuals of society alike. In such a discourse we celebrate the beauty of scientific progress, whilst too holding space for the unease new unknowns can bring. Science communication is how we can continue to alleviate this dissonance, bridging knowledge gaps and seeking scientific understanding for all. The creation of Issue 4: Mirage, Issue 5: Wicked and Issue 6: Elemental over 2023 and 2024 has seen contributors create ever more informative content, aiming to make the innovations of science readily accessible to the public. Through experimenting with new formats, genres and mediums for illustrations, our contributors have formed a body of work that seeks to captivate and question. FEATURED ISSUES Issue 4: Mirage This issue explores the realms of science that are not what they seem. Is that shape in the distance reality or just a figment of your imagination? Issue 5: Wicked This issue spotlights the mischievous, malevolent and morally dubious. Issue 6: Elemental This issue explores the building blocks that comprise the world we live in. PURCHASE A COPY Keen to purchase a copy of the magazine? Click here to do so, at an OmniSci Magazine exclusive price! Alternatively, visit the Science Gallery Melbourne to find our magazines stocked in person. back to print editions

The Intellectual’s False Dilemma: Art vs Science By Natalie Cierpisz The age-old debate once again resurfaces. How do art and science truly interact? Is one dependent on the other? How does the ‘art intellectual’ embrace science, and how does the ‘science intellectual’ embrace art? Is this all a meaningless debate anyway? Edited by Andrew Lim, Mia Horsfall & Hamish Payne Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Casey Boswell The autumnal Melbourne wind whistles through the naked plane trees lining South Lawn, the sky is flat and grey. Two individuals who regard themselves and only themselves as ‘intellectual paragons’ are seated on a somewhat uncomfortable wooden bench, a perfect perch for people-watching, yet they are rather egotistical and notice only their own presence. One carefully places down their black coffee to light a hand-rolled cigarette; they are a liberal arts intellectual. As the wind grows stronger, the other tightly wraps a lab coat around themselves, and pushes a pair of wire-rimmed spectacles up their nose for the nth time. This would be our scientist. “So, are you still fooling around with your test tubes and pretty lights?” asks the liberal arts academic, cigarette hanging out the corner of their mouth. “If you mean, am I still investigating antiprotons using laser spectroscopy, then yes, indubitably so. How’s your fooling around with Hegel going?” replies the scientist, again pushing their glasses back up to a suitable height. The liberal arts intellectual is quick to retort the scientist’s trite remarks - they are in fact composing a Hegelian analysis of The Communist Manifesto, and not ‘fooling around’ by any means. The tension between the two self-professed intellectuals is building. The two appear to be fighting for dominance in their passive attacks on ego. So goes the age-old feud between the arts and the sciences. These two shallow characters play into the false dilemma that science and art are separate, distinct, alien. Two polar opposites. A total and unequivocal dichotomy. In all fairness, it is difficult to imagine many people will take this polarised a stance on the relationship between art and science. And now, as we delve into the complex relationship between the two domains, it should become clear that science and art are functionally interdependent (1), and considering art and science as totally separate is simply absurd. Let’s get back to our two feuding intellectuals. There seems to be much stereotypical disjunction between the two. But how does this translate to the true relationship between art and science? If the liberal arts intellectual and scientist were not so wrapped up in their self-interested ways, perhaps their gaze would slowly drift to the grandiose arches and imposing columns of the Old Quad. The harmonious form and mathematical ratios of these monuments are an enduring reminder of the architectural leaps and bounds made in the early 14th century, a blended pursuit of art and science. Ergo, we will head to one of the greatest paradigm shifts in Western history – the Renaissance. The Renaissance roughly spanned from the 14th to the 17th century and was a period of complete intellectual revolution – for both science and the arts (2). Everyone is familiar with Leonardo da Vinci, the great Renaissance artist. Less people know that he was also an inventor and a man whose artistic practice was heavily influenced by science (3). To ensure his paintings were as realistic as possible, Da Vinci dissected cadavers to better understand human anatomy, and studied optics and astronomy to perfect his use of space and form in paintings like The Last Supper. Likewise, scientists like Nicholas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei kickstarted a revolutionary paradigm shift towards the heliocentric model, their work in optics and astronomy being heavily reflected in artworks of the same era. Both science and art challenged what was for centuries prior considered the status quo. Source: Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1498, tempera on gesso, pitch, and mastic, 460 cm × 880 cm, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org (4). This certainly isn’t a call for readers to head to the Melbourne General Cemetery and begin digging up specimens, nor to transfer to a double degree in fine arts and biomedicine. Instead, the point is more about how fruitful interaction between the two domains can be, and how one requires the other to flourish. Returning briefly to South Lawn, the snarky liberal arts intellectual continues looking bored and takes out their copy of The Myth of Sisyphus. Sitting directly opposite them the scientist has gone back to finishing the latest New Scientist podcast and calculating a quantum theory of gravity. We have seen that science can inspire art, but how can art inspire science? “The greatest scientists are artists as well.” (5) So said perhaps the most well-known scientist of the modern century. Not only did Albert Einstein develop the special and general theory of relativity (we won’t get into the mathematical specifics for both our sakes), he was also a talented violinist and pianist. Einstein often credited his artistic side for his success in science, testifying that, "the theory of relativity occurred to me by intuition, and music is the driving force behind this intuition. My parents had me study the violin from the time I was six. My new discovery is the result of musical perception.” (6) We have already seen how science prompts art to create new visions, and Einstein was no exception. His revolutionary ideas about space and time have been acknowledged as a prime artistic influence for Picasso’s arguably infamous Cubist style, as well as for the Surrealist art movement. (7) But the arts are not just confined to visual and musical expression. How about the area of expertise of our liberal arts friends? Liberal arts as they are known today, include sociology, literature, philosophy, psychology, politics, and more. The knowledge and, most importantly, critical thinking that is learnt through humanistic education is perhaps key to the future of science. As the world changes and evolves, humans must change and evolve with it, creating innovative solutions along the way. If we shift our focus to around the 1st century BCE, we will encounter what is widely regarded as the coining of the term artes liberales, or liberal arts. Roman statesman, scholar and writer Marcus Tullius Cicero wrote extensively about a wide array of topics, from politics and education to Stoic philosophy. “Artes liberales” roughly translates to “subjects worthy of a free person” - academic study that would enable one to actively participate in society (8). This curriculum consisted of a focus on seven key disciplines of rhetoric, geometry, grammar, music, astronomy, arithmetic, and logic. Liberal arts by nature are not the antithesis of science. From the crux of the artes liberales evolved the study of mathematics, physics, philology, history, and so on. Today we have reached a point where these seven disciplines have evolved and branched out so expansively that we have lost sight of the fact that our modern-day science and arts curriculums are sown from the same seed. Both science and art stem from the real world. Simply put, science is a lens into the study of this world and the inhabitants within it. Art is another lens into this complex system, providing a different but equally valuable perspective. Life is not binary, so neither should be our approach to studying it, and by virtue studying ourselves. Now is the time to embrace such transdisciplinary thinking. We need to bridge the gap between rigorous climate science facts and currently inadequate policy making, assess the ethics of the future of gene-editing, and ultimately become better thinkers. The combined intellectual strength of analytical thinking associated with science, where we learn how to test hypotheses, interpret data and draw valid conclusions; and the arts, where we learn critical thinking, how to develop arguments, how to understand a diverse audience, is necessary to keep humanity’s head above water as our world rapidly changes. Take for example the future of the CRISPR-Cas9 editing tool. This enzyme-based tool allows scientists to remove or add sections of DNA sequence in our genome, our code for life. With this ‘hand of God’ comes great responsibility. Collaboration needs to be made between scientific thinkers and humanistic thinkers to identify what type of robust legislation needs to be implemented to ensure ethical use of this tool. It is no longer a case of scientists working in isolation in underground bunkers. Scientists are making huge strides in research that extend to and greatly impact the wider community. Cases like CRISPR-Cas9 demand a lens from science and a lens from the arts in order to see the full picture – and in this case, to ensure the ethical and safe practise of a tool that has potential to save lives and improve individuals’ quality of life – but this only happens if science and art function in harmony. So back to you, the reader. Perhaps think about enrolling in that philosophy breadth subject next semester that your liberal arts friend raves about. Pick up that popular science book you have been eyeing off at Readings on Lygon St. Listen to that science podcast that keeps popping up on your Spotify homepage (The BBC’s The Infinite Monkey Cage is excellent). Pick up that paintbrush. Go visit Science Gallery Melbourne, a recent art scene addition affiliated with University of Melbourne – how fitting! This isn’t Romeo and Juliet, where you are either a Capulet or a Montague. Rather, this is a case of wave-particle duality, where an electron is both a wave and a particle, and you are both an artist and a scientist. As the typical Melbourne wind continues to pick up and the Old Arts clocktower strikes 7:00 pm, it appears the liberal arts intellectual just swapped their copy of The Myth of Sisyphus for the scientists’ copy of Brief Answers to the Big Questions. Looks like they’re making progress. References: 1. Richmond, Sheldon. “The Interaction of Art and Science.” The MIT Press 17, no. 2 (1984): 81-86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1574993 . 2. History.com Editors. “Renaissance.” History.com. April 4, 2018. https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/renaissance . 3. Powers, Anna. “Why Art is Vital to the Study of Science.” Forbes. July 13, 2020. https://www.forbes.com/sites/annapowers/2020/07/31/why-art-is-vital-to-the-study-of-science/?sh=7dfd8f8942eb . 4. Da Vinci, Leonardo. The Last Supper. 1498. Tempera on gesso, pitch, and mastic. 460 cm × 880 cm. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org . 5, 6. Root-Bernstein, Michelle. “Einstein On Creative Thinking: Music and the Intuitive Art of Scientific Imagination.” Psychology Today. March 31, 2010. https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/imagine/201003/einstein-creative-thinking-music-and-the-intuitive-art-scientific-imagination . 7. Muldoon, Ciara. “Did Picasso know about Einstein?” Physics World. November 1, 2002. https://physicsworld.com/a/did-picasso-know-about-einstein/ . 8. Tempest, Kathryn. “Cicero’s Artes Liberales and the Liberal Arts.” Ciceronian on Line 4, no. 2 (2020): 479-500. https://doi.org/10.13135/2532-5353/5502 . Feynman, Richard, P. The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman. New York: Basic Books, 2005. Science Gallery Melbourne. “Inspiring and Transforming Curious Minds.” Published 2021. https://melbourne.sciencegallery.com/what-we-do . White, Fiona. “Why art and science are better together.” The University of Sydney News. September 17, 2020. https://www.sydney.edu.au/science/news-and-events/2020/09/17/arts-and-science-better-together.html .

< Back to Issue 10 Fiction Disguised as Fact: The Cost of Scientific Misinformation by Kara Miwa-Dale 2 June 2026 Edited by Nushi Singh In 1998, Andrew Wakefield published a paper in The Lancet claiming that the MMR vaccine was linked to autism. For such a serious claim, the evidence was astonishingly weak (1). The study included only 12 hand-picked participants, had no control group, and was riddled with inconsistencies. To make matters worse, Wakefield failed to disclose that he had received funding from a lawyer representing parents taking legal action against vaccine manufacturers. He further concealed that he had filed a patent for a rival vaccine that stood to benefit if confidence in the MMR vaccine fell. Despite these glaring flaws, the paper gained enormous influence. Media outlets across the world amplified its alarming claims, often with little scientific scrutiny (2). The Wakefield study became one of the clearest examples of fiction disguising itself as fact: a false narrative cloaked in the appearance of scientific credibility. Once released into the public sphere, emotionally charged claims quickly began to overshadow scientific evidence. Wakefield’s paper sparked widespread concern about the MMR vaccine. Few members of the public were likely to read the original study themselves, let alone critically evaluate its methods. Instead, many depended on journalists and news reports to interpret the findings. In doing so, they relied on a broader trust in scientific institutions and science communication, often assuming that published research had already been thoroughly vetted (3). This misplaced trust had far-reaching consequences. Before the paper was published, MMR vaccination rates in the UK sat at around 91-92%. Within five years, by 2003, this had fallen to approximately 80% (4). Although it is impossible to prove that Wakefield’s paper alone caused this drop, there is little doubt that it ignited widespread anxiety. By the time subsequent research had comprehensively refuted the claims (5, 6, 7), public trust had already been badly damaged. The media played an important role in amplifying parental fear. News coverage often prioritised emotional headlines and personal anecdotes over scientific evidence. Although evidence supporting vaccine safety was reported during this time, it accounted for only 37% of media stories during the controversy (2). Parents who were unsure about vaccinating their children were strongly influenced by mass media coverage (8). In one Welsh study, parents who chose not to vaccinate their children were 4.5 times more likely to rely on newspapers for information about the MMR vaccine (9). Twelve years later, Wakefield’s paper was finally retracted (10). By then, however, the damage had already been done. Despite overwhelming evidence disproving the claims, many people continued to believe them. Psychologists describe this as the ‘continued influence effect’, where misinformation can continue shaping attitudes and behaviour even after it has been debunked (11). Misinformation is not only persuasive — in some cases, it can also be deadly. It would be comforting to believe that society has become better at recognising misinformation. Unfortunately, the problem remains deeply entrenched. In some cases, misinformation does not originate from fraudulent researchers, but from governments themselves. This is perhaps even more insidious, because institutional authority can give misinformation an appearance of legitimacy that is extraordinarily difficult to undo. A striking example emerged in Japan in 2013, following the introduction of a national HPV vaccination program for teenage girls. The vaccine was supported by strong scientific evidence demonstrating its effectiveness in preventing cervical cancer (12). Yet only two months after launching the program, the Japanese government suspended its active recommendation of the vaccine due to growing public concern about safety (13). These concerns were largely driven by media reports of alleged side effects following vaccination. Television programs and newspaper stories featured emotional stories from young women reporting chronic pain and neurological symptoms, triggering widespread panic across the country (14). Crucially, many media outlets failed to emphasise that no scientific evidence had established a causal link between the vaccine and these symptoms. Although the government described the suspension as temporary while investigations continued, political caution and public pressure transformed it into a prolonged policy pause. Vaccination rates plummeted from 70% to barely 1% within a single year (15). The suspension ultimately lasted more than eight years, creating what researchers have described as a ‘lost generation’ of women who missed the opportunity to be protected against HPV (14). While the program has since been reinstated, public trust has not fully recovered. As of 2025, vaccination rates remain around 30% — a far reach from the World Health Organisation target of 90% (16). The long-term consequences may not become apparent for decades, as cervical cancer rates rise in under-vaccinated populations. This case highlights the powerful role of the media in shaping public perceptions of risk, and in turn, influencing policy decisions with enduring public health consequences. Addressing misinformation is not solely the responsibility of scientists or governments. Journalists and media organisations also play a critical role in shaping public understanding. The persistence of misinformation highlights an important reality: scientific evidence alone is not enough. Even the most robust research can be undermined if it is not communicated in a way that is accessible, transparent and trustworthy. This is where science communication becomes essential — helping to bridge the gap between evidence and public understanding so that scientific knowledge can inform real-world decisions. In the space between fact and fiction, communication determines which voice is heard. In an age where information moves faster than ever, the ability to communicate science clearly, honestly, and effectively may be just as important as the science itself. References 1. Flaherty DK. The Vaccine-Autism Connection: A Public Health Crisis Caused by Unethical Medical Practices and Fraudulent Science. Annals of Pharmacotherapy . 2011;45 (10):1302-1304. doi: 10.1345/aph.1Q318 2. Lewis J, Speers, T. Misleading media reporting? The MMR story. Nature Reviews Immunology . 2003; 3 (11):913-918. doi:10.1038/nri1228 3. Howell EL, Wirz CD, Scheufele DA, Brossard D, Xenos MA. Deference and decision-making in science and society: How deference to scientific authority goes beyond confidence in science and scientists to become authoritarianism. Public Understanding of Science . 2020; 29 (8):800-818. doi:10.1177/0963662520962741 4. Pearce A, Law C, Elliman D, Cole TJ, Bedford H. Factors associated with uptake of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine (MMR) and use of single antigen vaccines in a contemporary UK cohort: prospective cohort study. BMJ . 2008; 336 (7647):754-757. doi:10.1136/bmj.39489.590671.25 5. Peltola H, Patja A, Leinikki P, Valle M, Davidkin I, Paunio M. No evidence for measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine-associated inflammatory bowel disease or autism in a 14-year prospective study. The Lancet . 1998; 351 (9112):1327-1328. 6. Madsen KM, Hviid A, Vestergaard M, et al. A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. New England Journal of Medicine . 2002; 347 (19):1477-1482. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa021134 7. Taylor B, Miller E, Farrington C, et al. Autism and measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine: no epidemiological evidence for a causal association. The Lancet . 1999; 353 (9169):2026-2029. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01239-8 8. Evans M, Stoddart H, Condon L, Freeman E, Grizzell M, Mullen R. Parents' perspectives on the MMR immunisation: a focus group study. Br J Gen Pract . 2001; 51 (472):904-910. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1314147/ 9. Walsh S, Thomas DR, Mason BW, Evans MR. The impact of the media on the decision of parents in South Wales to accept measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) immunization. Epidemiol Infect . 2015; 43 (3):550-560. doi:10.1017/s0950268814000752 10. Rao TS, Andrade C. The MMR vaccine and autism: Sensation, refutation, retraction, and fraud. Indian J Psychiatry . 2011; 53 (2):95-96. doi:0.4103/0019-5545.82529 11. Johnson HM, Seifert CM. Sources of the continued influence effect: When misinformation in memory affects later inferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition . 1994; 20 (6):1420. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.6.1420 12. Paavonen L, Naud P, Salmerón J, et al. Efficacy of human papillomavirus (HPV)-16/18 AS04-adjuvanted vaccine against cervical infection and precancer caused by oncogenic HPV types (PATRICIA): final analysis of a double-blind, randomised study in young women. The Lancet . 2009; 374 (9686):301-314. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61248-4 13. Iked S, Ueda Y, Yagi A, et al. HPV vaccination in Japan: what is happening in Japan? Expert Review of Vaccines . 2019; 18 (4):323-325. doi:10.1080/14760584.2019.1584040 14. Takahashi T, Ichimiya M, Tomono M, et al. Overcoming HPV Vaccine Hesitancy in Japan: A Narrative Review of Safety Evidence, Risk Communication, and Policy Approaches. Vaccines . 2015; 13 (6):590. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/13/6/590 15. Yagi A, Ueda Y, Oka E, Nakagawa S, Kimura T. Human papillomavirus vaccination by birth fiscal year in Japan. JAMA network open . 2024; 7 (7):e2422513. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.22513 16. Sazawa M, Ishiguro C, Mimura W, Maeda M, Murata F, Fukuda H. Impact of the resumption of proactive recommendation of HPV vaccination on HPV vaccination rates in Japan: an interrupted time series analysis based on the VENUS study. BMJ Public Health . 2025; 3 (2):e000982. doi:10.1136/bmjph-2024-000982 Previous article back to Fact & Fiction Next article

< Back to Issue 10 To Prevent Climate Catastrophe, Keep Reading by Madeleine Kelly 2 June 2026 Illustrated by Kylie Wang Edited by Nushi Singh SPOILERS AHEAD: The Ministry for the Future, Strange World You’d be forgiven for thinking the world is ending. I’ve thought it’s happening too. As a climate science student who has left lectures in tears and had to put a cap on how many times I check the news, I often feel anxious for what the future will hold. What really frustrates me though, is that when I sit down to tune out the horrors, I’m presented with the same looming catastrophe in books and movies. Ecological collapse, war, deadly diseases and extreme weather events not only dominate our daily headlines, but also our entertainment. The way we imagine the future in fiction is too often bleak and dystopian. Stories like 1984 , The Hunger Games or The Handmaid’s Tale predict a future where ecological collapse has led to oppressive control by totalitarian governments (1, 2, 3). In Mad Max and Waterworld it has left us hunting each other for sport (4, 5). Eco-fascists destroy worlds in Snowpiercer (6) ; sea level rise has inundated Melbourne’s poorest in The Sea and Summer (7); and collective inaction leads to the literal end of the world in Don’t Look Up (8). Everywhere you look, the apocalypse is inescapable. Even comical stories like Sharknado forecast that devastating climate change is inevitable and will leave humanity scrambling to survive (9). We can’t catch a break. If this is all we can tell of our future, then this is cause for concern. Stories are more than just entertainment – they have real world impact. Science fiction, in particular, has already changed the world countless times over. Video phone calls, automatic sliding doors and self-driving cars are amongst the dozens of inventions inspired by the words and worlds of science fiction (10). Fiction can also influence and act as a warning of political and social systems. Cyberpunk as a genre anticipated worlds defined by mass surveillance, corporate greed and societal decay – all of which you can find inside a Coles supermarket today. Stories can become self-fulfilling prophecies. Warnings are all well and good to raise awareness, but when it comes to the climate crisis, we certainly don’t need any more catastrophising. Climate change is recognised as a serious threat to mental health, with eco-anxiety on the rise, especially amongst young people (11,12). In 2021, a survey found that 75% of young people believe the future is “frightening” and more than 50% felt “helpless and powerless” (13). For some, this can encourage them to engage in climate action (14), but for others it can be debilitating. Severe eco-anxiety has been linked to a feeling coined ‘eco-paralysis’, where individuals are too overwhelmed to take action on climate change (15, 16). Disaster and dystopian stories have, ironically, aided this rise of eco-anxiety and inaction. The Day After Tomorrow (2004), arguably the most famous piece of climate fiction, is set in a near future where the North Atlantic Oceanic current has broken down due to climate change, shepherding in an ice age that freezes over New York City (17). While the movie increased awareness and concern over climate change, research found it left audiences unsure of how to act and scared for the future (18, 19). With our crippled imagination for optimistic alternatives, we’re left stranded in the dystopia, watching helplessly as our future is swept away by Sharknado. We need to rewrite the script. Solarpunk, an emerging sci-fi subgenre and social movement, is trying to do just that. Solarpunk stories reject the doomism and imagine futures where humanity has succeeded in warding off devastating climate change. They include stories like Disney’s Strange World where humanity swaps an unsustainable fuel source for renewable energy (20), as well as stories like Arco and A Psalm for the Wild Built where we rely only on green technology, live within our means and rewild most of the planet (21, 22). What makes solarpunk stories so compelling is that they don’t shy away from showing how complex the problem is and how difficult system change can be. The Ministry for the Future by Kim Stanley Robinson centres around an organisation that is formed to protect the rights of future generations from climate change (23). Using different perspectives and writing styles, Robinson explains the science of climate change and the complicated world of climate economics and policy. He illustrates just how much needs to be changed, but without overwhelm. The story does not leave you eco-paralysed. Instead, it acts as a roadmap showing all the possible pathways to a sustainable future. In taking these actions, we not only address climate change, but also the social inequalities that are intertwined with it. The energy transition is complete, and a successful and equitable restructuring of the global economy has abolished billionaires. It’s a future we can look forward to. At their core, solarpunk stories have hope. A realistic hope that we can achieve a sustainable future using the tools we already have. We need this right now, because hope is incredibly useful in inspiring and navigating change. People with higher levels of hope are generally better equipped to navigate traumatic or stressful circumstances (24). Hopeful people are also more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviour. One study of more than 500 high school students found that students who felt hopeful about the future were more likely to engage in sustainable behaviours (25). While a number of students also exhibited eco-anxiety, the study concluded that hope was the stronger predictor for actually taking action. If dystopian stories are becoming a self-fulling prophecy, I’m willing to bet – and science is too – that if we tell them, the same could be true for stories of ecological and societal care. The main challenge here is that these stories remain niche. Like most climate fiction, they often only circulate within audiences already concerned about environmental issues, rather than reaching people who are disengaged from or hostile towards climate action (26). This is precisely why these stories need to become more visible. To normalise this future, more of us need to be creating and consuming solarpunk stories. Preventing the climate apocalypse requires you to pick up a book or watch a movie. The stories we tell today shape the world we build tomorrow. So, let them be stories of hope. References Orwell G. 1984 . Martin Secker & Warburg Ltd; 1949. Collins S. The Hunger Games . Scholastic Press; 2008. Atwood M. The Handmaid’s Tale . McClelland & Stewart; 1985. Miller G. Mad Max . Roadshow Film Distributors; 1979. Reynolds K. Waterworld . Universal Pictures; 1995. Ho BJ. Snowpiercer . CJ Entertainment; 2013. Turner G. The Sea and Summer. Faber & Faber; 1987. McKay A. Don’t Look Up . Netflix; 2021. Ferrante AC. Sharknado . The Asylum and Syfy Films; 2013. BBC News. Science fact: Sci-fi inventions that became reality. 2016. Accessed May 24 2026. https://www.bbc.com/news/health-38026393 Clayton S, Karazsia BT. Development and validation of a measure of climate change anxiety. Journal of Environmental Psychology . 2020;69:101434. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101434 Passmore H, Lutz PK, Howell AJ. Eco-Anxiety: A Cascade of Fundamental Existential Anxieties. Journal of Constructivist Psychology . 2020;36(2):138-153. doi:10.1080/10720537.2022.2068706 Hickman C, Marks E, Pihkala P, et al. Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey. Lancet Planet Health . 2021;5:e863-73. doi: 10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00278-3 Verplanken B, Marks E, Dobromir AI. On the nature of eco-anxiety: How constructive or unconstructive is habitual worry about global warming? Journal of Environmental Psychology . 2020;72:101528. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101528 Innocenti M, Santarelli G, Lombardi GS, et al. How Can Climate Change Anxiety Induce Both Pro-Environmental Behaviours and Eco-Paralysis? The Mediating Role of General Self-Efficacy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2023;20(4):3085. doi:10.3390/ijerph20043085 Leger-Goodes T, Malboeuf-Hurtubise C, Mastine T, Généreux M, Paradis P, Camden C. Eco-anxiety in children: A scoping review of the mental health impacts of the awareness of climate change. Frontiers in Psychology . 2022;13:872544. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872544 Emmerich R. The Day After Tomorrow . 20th Century Fox; 2004. Svoboda, M. The lingering influence of ‘Day After Tomorrow’. Yale Climate Connections. 2014. Accessed May 24 2026. https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2014/11/the-long-melt-the-lingering-influence-of-the-day-after-tomorrow/ Lowe T, Brown K, Dessai S, Doria MF, Haynes K, Vincent K. Does tomorrow ever come? Disaster narrative and public perceptions of climate change. Public Understanding of Science . 2006;15(4):435-457. doi:10.1177/0963662506063796 Hall D. Strange World . Walt Disney Studios and Motion Pictures; 2022. Bienvenu U. Arco . Diaphana Distribution; 2025. Chambers B. A Psalm for the Wild Built . Tor Books; 2021. Robinson KS. The Ministry for the Future . Orbit Books; 2021. Ritschel LA, Cassiello-Robbons C. Hope and depression and personality disorders. Current Opinion in Psychology . 2023;49:101507. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101507 Finnegan W. Educating for hope and action competence: a study of secondary school students and teachers in England. Environmental Education Research . 2022;29:1617-1636. doi:10.1080/13504622.2022.2120963 Schneider-Mayerson M. The Influence of Climate Fiction: An Empirical Survey of Readers. Environmental Humanities . 2018;10(2):473-500. doi: 10.1215/22011919-7156848 Previous article back to Fact & Fiction Next article

< Back to Issue 9 Ancient Asian Alchemy: Big Booms by Isaac Tian 28 October 2025 Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Edited by Luci Ackland One question has plagued the human condition since the beginning of time: how can we escape death? Well, we certainly know who didn’t find the answer – the alchemists of ancient China. It’s 210 BC, and you are an alchemist standing before Emperor Qin Shi Huang in his court. You hand him an elixir supposed to grant him immortality and eternal reign. Only the serum contains what we now call “mercury” and if anything, you granted him mortality, as he drops dead before you (1). Where does one begin in this journey to immortality? How do we combine chemicals to find the perfect serum? Keep in mind, we have not even come close to establishing the periodic table at this point (no, that will occur about 1000 years later) (2). Saltpetre – or potassium nitrate – had been used extensively to treat common illnesses and to maintain good health. There’s our starting point (3). The search for this magic elixir persists for the next eleven centuries. We never give up… do we? The ingenuity of the alchemists spoke to them: it told them to mix in a few other ingredients to the saltpetre. With the trio of saltpetre, sulfur and charcoal, gunpowder was henceforth born into this world (4). The alchemists must have been in for a surprise when their “potion of immortality” sparked and exploded before them. So how does gunpowder explode? Why don’t other flammable items like match tips and dry wood explode when we set them alight? It comes down to a few key things. First is our perception of explosions. Chemicals don’t simply “explode” – it’s not an inherent quality of reactions – however, they can combust. Combustion is the release of energy from a fuel. Wood and matches combust, but they do so in a way that is relatively slower than gunpowder. Gunpowder combusts rapidly – so there is a large amount of energy release within a short period of time. Secondly, it’s about the availability of oxygen. Items that combust slowly typically have to wait for the oxygen to trickle in from the surrounding air, since oxygen is a critical component of combustion. This does not apply to gunpowder. The oxygen for its combustion is right there in the nitrate compound (of potassium nitrate – or saltpetre). So unlike burning wood or matches, the combustion does not need to wait for oxygen to arrive from the surrounding environment – it’s already in there with the rest of the powder (5)! To go further on that point: the closer the atoms are, the faster the combustion reaction can progress, because chemical compounds don’t need to wait long for the heat to get to them. Since gunpowder is… well… a powder, it’s rather compact and all the molecules of potassium nitrate, sulfur, and carbon sit tightly next to one another. It is this physical arrangement that permits the fast transfer of heat between molecules, ensuring that a lot of energy can be released at once. Ultimately, when all these physical and chemical phenomena occur in perfect unison, the high temperatures rapidly increase the kinetic energy of surrounding air molecules, causing them to shoot outwards at great speeds to form a “barrier” of sorts. When this barrier, also known as a shockwave, hits your eardrums, the gunpowder delivers what it does best: BOOM! Now, let’s combust some gunpowder, build up some gaseous pressure, and launch ourselves into the modern day. It’s been about twelve centuries – what have we been doing with all the gunpowder? As it turns out, we humans are very inventive, but also violent (Wow – who knew?). We quickly realised that the physical properties of the resulting gases can be harnessed to quickly move very heavy objects (6). Said heavy objects could then be guided in the direction of, say, a human being or a structure. Weaponry derived from gunpowder has existed for a very long time, albeit rather inefficient at first. The introduction of gunpowder to warfare came in the early 10th century, when soldiers applied gunpowder to arrows that would ignite and create fire arrows. Of course, whilst it might have been effective in creating a hole in humans, it was significantly less so when it came to creating holes in walls and structures. Only after 300 years did we then invent cannons and guns. However, those guns were slow – really, really slow – to the point that bows and arrows were actually preferred during warfare of that era. It would be another 600 years before we realised that there were more effective ways of reloading a gun; brandishing a new trend of military technology that would set the stage for the First and Second World Wars (7). By that point, the most terrifying of weapons had begun to stray away from the use of gunpowder. Missiles and rockets began employing other chemicals as propellants, owing to the advantage it had over gunpowder (7). It would also be remiss of this article to omit the exploitation of atomic power – pervading the world with such destruction that gunpowder appeared like a child’s toy (8). The tragic irony of a supposed innovation in immortality leading to mortality by war and conflict will forever embed itself into our history. Even with the right intentions, the invention by the great minds of alchemy has sparked a chain reaction for widespread destruction and warfare. It only makes you wonder – what are we making now that will lead us further astray in the future? References 1. Glancey J. The army that conquered the world. BBC. Accessed August 24, 2025. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20170411-the-army-that-conquered-the-world 2. Guharay DM. A brief history of the periodic table. ASBMBTODAY. Accessed August 28, 2025. https://www.asbmb.org/asbmb-today/science/020721/a-brief-history-of-the-periodic-table 3. Butler A, Moffett J. Saltpetre in Early and Medieval Chinese Medicine. Asian Medicine . 2009;5(1):173-185. doi: 10.1163/157342109X568982 4. Paradowski, R.J. Invention of Gunpowder and Guns. EBSCO Research Starters. 2022. Accessed August 24, 2025. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/invention-gunpowder-and-guns 5. Stanford University. Detonation and Combustion. Stanford University. Accessed September 4, 2025. https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/ww2/projects/firebombing/detonation-and-combustion.htm 6. Britannica. Ammunition | Bullets, Shells & Cartridges. Britannica. 2025. Accessed September 25, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/technology/ammunition 7. Beyer G. How Did Gunpowder Change Warfare? TheCollector. 2025. Accessed October 4, 2025. https://www.thecollector.com/how-did-gunpowder-change-warfare/ 8. ICAN. History of Nuclear Weapons. ICAN. Accessed October 4, 2025. https://www.icanw.org/nuclear_weapons_history Previous article Next article Entwined back to