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By Lily McCann Svante Pääbo: Talking to the Past By Lily McCann 23 March 2022 Edited by Caitlin Kane Illustrated by Quynh Anh Nguyen For a collection of numbers on a screen, the World Population Clock stirs a lot of emotions (1). Watch it tick on, recording a life, another life, a death, then more lives. The number — well past 8 billion now — reflects the extent of Homo sapiens’ conquest over the world. Evidence of our culture, with its complex language, society and infrastructure, is everywhere. But we seem to be the only earthly species to live in such a way, the only species to track our own numbers on a digital clock. We swarm the planet, all its continents and yet we are, essentially, alone. To challenge this isolation, scientists reach out in all directions, hoping for some kind of reflection that might shed light on who we are. Astronomers look to space; they probe the depths of the universe in search of life like our own. Others, like Svante Pääbo, look to the past. 300,000 years ago, when Homo sapiens first evolved, there was no paper, no writing, no human-like language with which to record stories, cultures, or day to day recounts. Scant traces of our ancestors are all that are left to tease us: fossilised footprints, makeshift tools, bones, grave sites. These markers are indecipherable whispers, slipping through in a hazy, broken form from a past era to our own. With a time machine or resurrection tool perhaps we could converse with the dead, but while these remain foreign to our current reality, how can we talk to the past? For Pääbo, the language of genetics is the key. Using the information carried in Palaeolithic bones, Pääbo has discovered links between present-day humans and prehistoric hominids that tell the story of our evolution and current condition. These incredible findings have earnt Pääbo the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 2022 (2). Some of his most important achievements establishing the field of Paleogenomics include the full sequencing of the Neanderthal genome and the discovery of a whole new hominin species: the Denisovan (3, 4). But what fascinates me is his discovery of genetic interrelations between these prehistoric species and Homo sapiens themselves. Pääbo compared Neanderthal and Denisovan genetics to those of modern humans across the world. He discovered similarities and patterns that suggest a flow of genes took place between our ancestors and these hominid species: in other words, our predecessors mingled sexually with Neanderthals and Denisovans at some point in history, passing their genetics onto us as encoded evidence of this fact (5). Human genomes from Europe and Asia were most closely related to Neanderthal genomes, and Pääbo has shown 1-2% of modern non-African Homo sapiens genes are Neanderthal in origin (3). Similar patterns were observed for Denisovans, with the closest relation with modern humans from Pacific islands (6). This data exposes an intimacy between prehistoric hominids that challenges our idea of humans as a species confined to solitude. This conversation between genomes is not without implications for modern human physiology. When Homo sapiens moved into Eurasia, Denisovan and Neanderthal locals had already adapted to places in which Homo sapiens were mere tourists (7). Transfer of certain genes from local populations into the Homo sapiens line may have assisted in their survival. One example is a gene found in Denisovans that is important for survival at high altitudes and has been inherited by modern day Tibetans (8). Researching the discrepancies between modern and prehistoric genetics can thereby allow us to show the function and significance of these shared genes. It is hard to visualise the world in which Neanderthals and Homo sapiens first met. Did the scene play out as a peaceful interaction between two groups of equals? Perhaps it was more akin to the pattern of colonisation with which we are familiar in modern history. As the last species of our evolutionary branch, the Homo genus, we cannot now recreate such a meeting. However these prehistoric meetings played out, we now have evidence that Homo sapiens and local species of hominids in Eurasia communicated on the most intimate of levels. An optimist might argue that these groups of pre-humans shared a harmonious understanding that could be reproduced if humans find an analogous life form elsewhere in the future. Communication is a powerful tool after all, traversing species and millennia. Perhaps genetic insights into the past can remind us that we are not really as isolated as we might think. References Current world population [Internet]. Worldometer. 2023 [cited 2023Mar7]. Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ Hedestam GK, Wedell A. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2022 [Internet]. NobelPrize.org. The Nobel Foundation; 2022 [cited 2023Mar7]. Available from: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2022/advanced-information/ Green RE, Krause J, Briggs AW, Maricic T, Stenzel U, Kircher M, et al. A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science. 2010May7;328(5979):710–22. Krause J, Fu Q, Good JM, Viola B, Shunkov MV, Derevianko AP, et al. The complete mitochondrial DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern Siberia. Nature. 2010Mar24;464(7290):894–7. Villanea FA, Schraiber JG. Multiple episodes of interbreeding between Neanderthal and modern humans. Nature Ecology & Evolution. 2018May26;3(1):39–44. Reich D, Patterson N, Kircher M, Delfin F, Nandineni MR, Pugach I, et al. Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania. The American Journal of Human Genetics. 2011Oct11;89(4):516–28. Rogers AR, Bohlender RJ, Huff CD. Early history of neanderthals and Denisovans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2017Jul7;114(37):9859–63. Huerta-Sánchez E, Jin X, Asan, Bianba Z, Peter BM, Vinckenbosch N, et al. Altitude adaptation in Tibetans caused by introgression of Denisovan-like DNA. Nature. 2014;512(7513):194–7. Previous article Next article

< Back to Issue 7 Staying at the Top of Our Game: the Evolutionary Arms Race by Aizere Malibek 22 October 2024 edited by Rita Fortune illustrated by Aizere Malibek Organisms have been competing for biological domination since the beginning of life. Evolutionary adaptations arise from genetic mutations, which propel biodiversification and allow organisms with favourable traits to survive and reproduce. This is the foundation of Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, explaining the rise of antimicrobial resistance and contagious viruses, while also offering solutions to these threats in public health and medicine. Mutations in the DNA of pathogens allow them to adapt to our immunological defences and invade our bodies. Conversely, the variation in our immune cells allows us to detect and defend against pathogens as a counter-adaptation. Medicine has advanced dramatically in the recent decades, with novel vaccines, antivirals and antibiotics being developed quicker than ever before. Unfortunately, persistent pathogens have found a way to survive attacks from our immune systems and drugs, making it difficult to devise an effective cure for these infections. Take HIV, for instance: the virus activates programmed cell-death in our CD4+ T immune cells and alters their metabolism as a survival mechanism (Gougeon, 2003; Palmer et al., 2016). In turn, this directly reduces the immune system’s ability to defend against the virus. This is further complicated by the high mutation rate of HIV, leading to rapid resistance to various treatment options (Gupta et al., 2018). Fortunately, scientific discoveries are helping us develop solutions for infectious diseases. It was found that HIV is susceptible to immune responses in its initial immature stages, which has become a target of the current pursuits in vaccine development for the virus (Picker et al., 2012). Vaccines are beneficial in these cases because they expose memory cells in order to inactive microbial antigens, which are a key cell involved in our active immune responses. This allows our bodies to tackle the pathogens more efficiently, reducing the symptoms and long-term effects of infection. Another emerging treatment option is through CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Originally discovered as a bacterial defence system against viruses, CRISPR allows scientists to precisely edit genes. This technology is being explored not only for its potential to correct genetic disorders, but also as a weapon against pathogens. Researchers are looking into using CRISPR to target viral DNA in infected human cells, cutting it out before the virus can replicate (Mengstie & Wondimu, 2021). If successful, CRISPR could be a game-changer in the fight against diseases like HIV, influenza, and even the next pandemic. However, HIV is just one example of this ongoing evolutionary arms race between pathogens and humans. The phenomenon isn’t restricted to just viruses; bacteria and fungi have also become significant opponents. The rise of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an alarming and rising public health issue today. Antibiotics are increasingly losing their efficacy due to misuse and overprescription. Pathogens like Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) and Staphylococcus aureus ( S. aureus ) have developed multiple resistance mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that break down the antibiotic molecules before they can exert their effect (Reygaert, 2018). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a prime example of antibiotic resistance. Initially, methicillin was developed to treat penicillin-resistant strains of bacteria. However, as methicillin became widely used, new strains of S. aureus emerged that could resist the potent drug. MRSA infections are now incredibly difficult to treat and pose a serious public health threat, particularly in hospitals and healthcare settings where immunocompromised patients are most vulnerable (Collins et al., 2010). Vaccines are not as effective against bacteria and fungi due to the more complex structures of these organisms. So how do we stay ahead in this race? One promising area of research is the development of next-generation antibiotics and antivirals. Researchers are now investigating bacteriophages—viruses that specifically infect bacteria—as a potential solution to antibiotic-resistant infections. These phages, which evolve alongside bacteria, could be used to target and destroy harmful bacterial strains without the collateral damage caused by traditional antibiotics (Plumet et al., 2022). While scientific innovation is key to staying ahead in the evolutionary arms race, public health policies play an equally important role. Misuse of antibiotics, for instance, has significantly accelerated the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria outside healthcare settings (David & Daum, 2010). Governments and healthcare organisations are now pushing for stricter regulations on antibiotic prescriptions and promoting the responsible use of these drugs. Global collaboration is also essential. Pathogens don’t respect national borders, and the spread of infectious diseases is a global issue. Initiatives like the World Health Organisation’s Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS) are crucial in monitoring and controlling the spread of resistant pathogens worldwide. By sharing data and resources, countries can better coordinate their responses to emerging threats, mitigating the risks posed to global health. The dynamic shifts in power between humans and pathogens continues to unfold in this evolutionary arms race. While scientific innovation is allowing the development of new tools, from vaccines to gene-editing technologies, we must also adopt policies that promote responsible drug use and global cooperation. In this race, staying at the top of our game requires constant vigilance, innovation, and adaptation—because pathogens certainly aren’t slowing down. The stakes are high, but with continued research and collaboration, we have the potential to maintain the upper hand in this ever-evolving battle for survival. References Collins, J., Rudkin, J., Recker, M., Pozzi, C., O'Gara, J. P., & Massey, R. C. (2010). Offsetting virulence and antibiotic resistance costs by MRSA. Isme Journal, 4(4), 577-584. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2009.151 David, M. Z., & Daum, R. S. (2010). Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus : Epidemiology and Clinical Consequences of an Emerging Epidemic. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 23(3), 616-+. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00081-09 Gougeon, ML. Apoptosis as an HIV strategy to escape immune attack. Nat Rev Immunol 3 , 392–404 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1038/nri1087 Gupta, R. K., Gregson, J., Parkin, N., Haile-Selassie, H., Tanuri, A., Forero, L. A., Kaleebu, P., Watera, C., Aghokeng, A., Mutenda, N., Dzangare, J., Hone, S., Hang, Z. Z., Garcia, J., Garcia, Z., Marchorro, P., Beteta, E., Giron, A., Hamers, R., . . . Bertagnolio, S. (2018). HIV-1 drug resistance before initiation or re-initiation of first-line antiretroviral therapy in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 18(3), 346-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1473-3099(17)30702-8 Mengstie, M. A., & Wondimu, B. Z. (2021). Mechanism and Applications of CRISPR/Cas-9-Mediated Genome Editing. Biologics-Targets & Therapy, 15, 353-361. https://doi.org/10.2147/btt.S326422 Palmer, C. S., Cherry, C. L., Sada-Ovalle, I., Singh, A., & Crowe, S. M. (2016). Glucose Metabolism in T Cells and Monocytes: New Perspectives in HIV Pathogenesis. EBioMedicine, 6, 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.02.012 Picker, L. J., Hansen, S. G., & Lifson, J. D. (2012). New Paradigms for HIV/AIDS Vaccine Development. In C. T. Caskey, C. P. Austin, & J. A. Hoxie (Eds.), Annual Review of Medicine, Vol 63 (Vol. 63, pp. 95-111). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-042010-085643 Plumet, L., Ahmad-Mansour, N., Dunyach-Remy, C., Kissa, K., Sotto, A., Lavigne, J. P., Costechareyre, D., & Molle, V. (2022). Bacteriophage Therapy for Staphylococcus Aureus Infections: A Review of Animal Models, Treatments, and Clinical Trials. Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology, 12, 907314. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2022.907314 Reygaert, W. C. (2018). An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria. Aims Microbiology, 4(3), 482-501. https://doi.org/10.3934/microbiol.2018.3.482 Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 7 Fossil Markets: Under the Gavel, Under Scrutiny by Jesse Allen 22 October 2024 edited by Zeinab Jishi illustrated by Jessica Walton At the crossroads between science and commerce, the trade in fossils has "developed into an organised enterprise" over the course of the twentieth century. With greater investment and heated competition between museums and private collectors, fossils increasingly took their place alongside “art, furniture, and fine wine” (Kjærgaard, 2012, pp.340-344). Fast forward to the twenty-first century, and this trend shows no signs of abating. On the contrary: as of 10 July 2024, a near-complete stegosaurus skeleton - nicknamed ‘Apex’ - was discovered by a commercial palaeontologist in Colorado, and was later purchased by “hedge-fund billionaire” Ken Griffin for US$44.6 million (Paul, 2024). This makes it the single most expensive dinosaur skeleton ever sold, eclipsing the previous record set in 2020 for a T-Rex named ‘Stan’, who was snapped up for US$31.8 million (Paul, 2024). These sales came with their fair share of criticism and controversy, reigniting the long-standing debate about how fossils should be handled, and where these ancient remains rightfully belong. Fossils (from the Latin fossilus , meaning ‘unearthed’) are the “preserved remains of plants and animals” which have been buried in sediments or preserved underneath ancient bodies of water, and offer unique insights into the history and adaptive evolution of life on Earth (British Geological Survey, n.d.). Their value is by no means limited to biology, however: they are useful for geologists in correlating the age of different rock layers (British Geological Survey, n.d.), and reveal the nature and consequences of changes in Earth’s climate (National Park Service, n.d.). Though new discoveries are being made all the time, fossils are inherently a finite resource, which cannot be replaced. This is part of what makes the fossil trade so lucrative, but the forces of limited supply and high demand have also led to the emergence of a dark underbelly. Cases of fossil forgery go back “as far as the dawn of palaeontology itself” in the late 18th and 19th centuries (Benton, 2024). The latest “boom in interest" is massively inflating prices and “fuelling the illicit trade” in fossils (Timmins, 2019). Whereas the US has a ‘finders-keepers’ policy, according to which private traders have carte blanche to dig up and sell any fossils they find, countries such as Brazil, China, and Mongolia do not allow the export of specimens overseas (Timmins, 2019). Sadly, this does little to prevent illegal smuggling; the laws are sometimes vague, and enforcement can be difficult when no single government agency is responsible for monitoring palaeontological activities (Winters, 2024). According to David Hone, a reader in zoology at Queen Mary University of London, “not every fossil is scientifically valuable”; but they are all “objects…worthy of protection,” and too many “scientifically important fossils appear briefly on the auction house website” before “vanish[ing] into a collector’s house, never to be seen again” (Hone, 2024). Museums, universities, and other scientific organisations are finding it more and more difficult to “financially compete with wealthy, private purchasers” as they are simply being priced out of the market (Paul, 2024). As sales become less open to expert scrutiny, the risk of forgery and price distortions become greater. It also has negative implications for future research. Private collectors might give access to one scientist, but not allow others to corroborate their findings. If the fossils aren’t open to all, many institutions simply won’t examine the items in private collections as a matter of principle. (Timmins, 2019). The general public also loses out in a world where dinosaur fossils are reduced to expensive conversation pieces. As Hone writes, “we might never dig up another Stegosaurus, or never find one nearly as complete as [Apex].” Having waited 150 million years to be unearthed, this latest fossil is one of many that may not see the light of day for a very long time. Bibliography Benton, M. (2024, September 5). Modern palaeontology keeps unmasking fossil forgeries – and a new study has uncovered the latest fake . The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/modern-palaeontology-keeps-unmasking-fossil-forgeries-and-a-new-study-has-uncovered-the-latest-fake-223501 British Geological Survey. (n.d.). Why do we study fossils? British Geological Survey. https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossils-and-geological-time/fossils/ Hone, D. (2024, June 10). The super-rich are snapping up dinosaur fossils – that’s bad for science . The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/article/2024/jun/10/super-rich-dinosaur-fossils-stegosaurus-illegal-trade-science Kjærgaard, P. C. (2012). The Fossil Trade: Paying a Price for Human Origins. Isis , 103 (2), 340–355. https://doi.org/10.1086/666365 National Park Service. (n.d.). The significance of fossils . U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fossils/significance.htm Paul, A. (2024, July 18). Stegosaurus 'Apex' sold for nearly $45 million to a billionaire . Popular Science. https://www.popsci.com/science/stegosaurus-skeleton-sale/ Timmins, B. (2019, August 8). What’s wrong with buying a dinosaur? BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48472588 Winters, G.F. (2024). International Fossil Laws. The Journal of Paleontological Sciences , 19 . https://www.aaps-journal.org/Fossil-Laws.html Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 7 A Coral’s Story: From thriving reef to desolation by Nicola Zuzek-Mayer 22 October 2024 edited by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo illustrated by Amanda Agustinus The sun is shining. Shoals of fish are zooming past me, leaving their nests where I let them stay for protection from bigger fish. I look to my right and the usual fish have come to dine from me, filling their bellies with vital nutrients. I feel proud of our coexistence: I feed the big fish and provide shelter to small fish, whilst they clean algae off of me. I am the foundation of the reef. I am the architect of the reef. Without me, there would be nothing. I can’t help but think that the reef is looking vibrant today. A wide variety of different coloured corals surround me in the reef, with some of my closest friends a stone’s throw away. We’ve all known each other for our entire lives, and it’s such a close knit community of diverse corals. Life is sprawling in this underwater metropolis, and it reminds me of how much I love my home. But recently, I’ve heard some gossip amongst the city’s inhabitants that this paradise may change soon – and for the worse. Something about the land giants destroying our home. I refuse to believe such rumours – why would they want to destroy us? Our home is so beautiful, and we have done nothing to hurt them. Our beauty attracts many of them to come visit us, and most never hurt us. But sometimes I feel pain when they visit on a particularly sunny day, when I see white particles drop down to the reef and pierce my branches, polluting the city. My friends have told me that these giants wear something called ‘sunscreen’ to protect themselves from the sun, but their ‘protection’ is actually poisoning us. I hope that they realise that soon. Another thing that I’ve noticed recently is that the ocean is feeling slightly warmer than before, and my growth is slowing more. Yes, I’m concerned, but I don’t think that the issue will get worse. 30 years later… The sun is blisteringly hot. I feel sick and the water around me is scorching hot. The vibrant colours of the reef are disappearing, and there are fewer organisms around. We used to be so diverse, but so many species of fish have died out. It’s eerie to see the area so desolate. My body is deteriorating and I feel so much more fragile than before. I feel tired all the time, after using so much energy to repair my body in the acidic water. I sense myself becoming paler, losing all colour in my body. I struggle to breathe. My coral friends and family are long gone, perished from the acidity of the ocean. I am the last one remaining. In my last moments, I can only wish to go and relive the past. I wish that the land giants had done more to help not only my city, but other reef cities around the world. All the other cities are empty now, and all ecosystems are long gone. If only someone had helped our dying world. Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 2 Making sense of the senses: The 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine What do spicy food, menthol lozenges and walking around blindfolded have in common? They all activate protein receptors discovered by Professors David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian, the winners of the 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. by Dominika Pasztetnik 10 December 2021 Edited by Breana Galea & Juulke Castelijn Illustrated by Casey Boswell Stimuli are changes to our environment, such as heat, cold and touch, that we recognise through our senses. We are all constantly bombarded with thousands of these stimuli from our surroundings. Despite this disorder, we are somehow able to perceive and make sense of the world. The protein receptors discovered by Professors Julius and Patapoutian make this possible. Located at the surface of the nerve cell, these receptors convert an external stimulus to an electrical signal. This signal then travels along nerve cells to the brain, allowing us to sense the stimulus. Based in California, Julius and Patapoutian are scientists in the fields of neuroscience and molecular biology. The main interest of their work has been identifying and understanding the protein receptors involved in detecting stimuli. For Julius, his major focus has been to identify the receptors involved in the sensation of pain (1). For Patapoutian, it has been to identify the protein receptors involved in detecting mechanical stimuli, such as touch (2). For their past 25 years of research, Julius and Patapoutian were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in October 2021. The Nobel Prize was founded by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish scientist also famous for inventing dynamite. Prior to his death in 1896, Nobel allocated most of his money to the first Nobel Prizes. Since 1901, the Nobel Prize has been annually bestowed on those who, in Nobel’s words, have “conferred the greatest benefit to mankind” in different fields (3). Notable past laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine include Sir Alexander Fleming, Sir Ernst Chain and the Australian Howard Florey. They were awarded in 1945 for their discovery of the antibiotic penicillin (4). Sir Hans Krebs received the Nobel Prize in 1953 for his discovery of the citric acid cycle (5). Also known as the Krebs cycle, it is a series of reactions used to produce energy in our cells. TRPV1: spice it up It’s a rather chilly morning. You eye the packet of Shin Ramyun that’s been sitting in your pantry for weeks. Without a second thought, you prepare the noodles, adding all the soup powder. After a few mouthfuls, your eyes start streaming and your face matches the scarlet red of the now-empty packaging. The culprit is capsaicin, a substance in the chilli flakes added to the soup powder. It binds to a protein receptor embedded at the surface of the nerve cells in your mouth. Julius discovered this receptor in 1997, and called it TRPV1, which stands for transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (6). TRPV1 is a channel with a gate at either end that is usually closed (Figure 1, blue) (7). Capsaicin opens these gates, allowing ions, such as calcium, to move through TRPV1 and into the nerve cell (Figure 1, red). The nerve cell then signals to the brain, causing you to feel the searing heat in your mouth. TRPV1 is also found in your skin and can be activated by temperatures above 40°C, such as when you accidentally touch the kettle full of boiling water for your noodles (8). Figure 1. TRPV1 at the surface of a nerve cell. In the absence of capsaicin or at cool temperatures, TRPV1 is closed (blue). In the presence of capsaicin or at higher temperatures, TRPV1 opens, allowing ions to flow into the nerve cell (red). TRPM8: too cool for school On your way to uni, you notice your throat’s a bit sore from going overboard with karaoke the night before, so you pop a lozenge into your mouth. The soothing, cool sensation is thanks to menthol. It is a compound that binds to TRPM8, which stands for transient receptor potential melastatin 8. It is another receptor found on the nerve cells in your tongue, as well as on your skin (9). TRPM8 was separately discovered in 2002 by both Julius and Patapoutian (10). Like TRPV1, TRPM8 is a protein channel that is usually closed. In response to menthol or cool temperatures from 26 down to 8°C, TRPM8 opens and allows ions to enter the nerve cell, which then signals the cold sensation to your brain (11). PIEZO: peer pressure During your lunch break at uni, you and your mates decide to play blindfolded tag. Because, as we all know, that's what uni students do in their free time. In the first round, you have the misfortune of being chosen as ‘it’. Blindfolded, you walk around with your hands in front of you, trying to find your mates. Despite not being able to see anything, you can still walk and wave your arms and roughly know where your arms and legs are in space. This is due to a sense called proprioception. You lunge forward and nearly grab someone, only to feel their jacket brush your fingers. Both proprioception and the detection of light touch, such as of the jacket brushing your fingers, are made possible by another class of protein receptors called PIEZO2. Discovered by Patapoutian in 2010, its name comes from piesi, the Greek word for pressure (12). Like TRPV1 and TRPM8, PIEZO2 is an ion channel at the nerve cell surface. However, the structure of PIEZO2 is nothing like that of TRPV1 and TRPM8. PIEZO2 has three protruding blades, which form a dent, called a nano-bowl, in the outer surface of the cell (13). When the outside of the cell is prodded, the blades straighten and the nano-bowl flattens. This allows the channel in the centre of the PIEZO2 to open, so ions can flow into the nerve cell (Figure 2). The nerve cell then sends an electrical impulse to the brain, letting you know you’re failing at blindfolded tag. Figure 2. PIEZO at the surface of a nerve cell. When force is applied to the surface of the nerve cell, the PIEZO channel opens, allowing ions to move into the cell. Apart from being essential for playing blindfolded tag, PIEZO2 is also important in various other aspects of the human body’s functioning we often take for granted. For example, PIEZO2 prevents you from breathing in too much air (14). It is also present on the cells lining your digestive tract. PIEZO2 detects pressure exerted onto these cells by food, causing the cells to release hormones that help with digestion (15). Furthermore, PIEZO2 helps monitor the fullness of your bladder, saving you from embarrassment (16). If there is a PIEZO2, what about PIEZO1? Although it has a similar structure to PIEZO2, PIEZO1’s role is quite different. PIEZO1 handles the background maintenance required to keep your body healthy. This includes bone formation (17) and preventing your red blood cells from bursting (18). People with a particular mutated form of PIEZO1 have a reduced risk of getting malaria (19). Patapoutian found that this mutation causes red blood cells to shrivel, preventing the malaria parasite from infecting them. Many people living in malaria-affected areas, such as Africa, have this mutation. Therefore, knowledge regarding these receptors is improving our understanding of related diseases. Drug development Researchers are currently using information about the receptors discovered by Julius and Patapoutian to develop new drugs to treat various conditions. Knowing the identities and structures of these receptors is helping researchers design compounds that bind to them, either blocking or activating them. In this way, Julius and Patapoutian’s work is helping provide a “benefit to mankind”. For example, during a migraine, the TRPV1 channel opens more frequently in the nerve cells of the meninges, the envelope surrounding the brain (20). These nerve cells contain more TRPV1 at their surfaces. This causes the nerve cells to send more electrical signals to the brain and so increases the sensation of pain. Using a drug to block the TRPV1 receptor could reduce the number of these electrical impulses and lessen the pain associated with migraines. It’s been a busy day activating all these receptors, which, as it turns out, are part of your daily life as a uni student. So next time you eat chilli flakes, have a menthol lozenge or play blindfolded tag, you will know which tiny sensors to hold responsible for your pleasant — or unpleasant — experiences. Further reading Press release: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021 The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021 - Advanced Information References: University of California San Francisco. “Biography of David Julius.” UCSF. Accessed November 10, 2021. https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2021/09/421486/biography-david-julius. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2021. “Press release: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021.” The Nobel Prize. Accessed November 10, 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2021/press-release/. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2021. "Alfred Nobel’s will." The Nobel Prize. Accessed November 10, 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-will/. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2021. “The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945.” The Nobel Prize. Accessed November 10, 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/ Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2021. “The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1953.” The Nobel Prize. Accessed November 10, 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1953/summary/ Ernfors, Patrik, Abdel El Manira, and Per Svenningsson. "Advanced information." The Nobel Prize. Accessed November 10, 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2021/advanced-information/. Liao, M., E. Cao, D. Julius, and Y. Cheng. "Structure of the Trpv1 Ion Channel Determined by Electron Cryo-Microscopy." Nature 504, no. 7478 (Dec 5 2013): 107-12. doi: 10.1038/nature12822. Ernfors et al., “Advanced information.” McKemy, D. D. "Trpm8: The Cold and Menthol Receptor." In Trp Ion Channel Function in Sensory Transduction and Cellular Signaling Cascades, edited by W. B. Liedtke and S. Heller. Frontiers in Neuroscience. Boca Raton (FL), 2007. Ernfors et al., “Advanced information.” McKemy, Trp Ion Channel Function in Sensory Transduction and Cellular Signaling Cascades. Coste, B., J. Mathur, M. Schmidt, T. J. Earley, S. Ranade, M. J. Petrus, A. E. Dubin, and A. Patapoutian. "Piezo1 and Piezo2 Are Essential Components of Distinct Mechanically Activated Cation Channels." Science 330, no. 6000 (Oct 1 2010): 55-60. doi: 10.1126/science.1193270. Jiang, Y., X. Yang, J. Jiang, and B. Xiao. "Structural Designs and Mechanogating Mechanisms of the Mechanosensitive Piezo Channels." Trends in Biochemical Sciences 46, no. 6 (Jun 2021): 472-88. doi: 10.1016/j.tibs.2021.01.008. Nonomura, K., S. H. Woo, R. B. Chang, A. Gillich, Z. Qiu, A. G. Francisco, S. S. Ranade, S. D. Liberles, and A. Patapoutian. "Piezo2 Senses Airway Stretch and Mediates Lung Inflation-Induced Apnoea." Nature 541, no. 7636 (Jan 12 2017): 176-81. doi: 10.1038/nature20793. Alcaino, C., K. R. Knutson, A. J. Treichel, G. Yildiz, P. R. Strege, D. R. Linden, J. H. Li, et al. "A Population of Gut Epithelial Enterochromaffin Cells Is Mechanosensitive and Requires Piezo2 to Convert Force into Serotonin Release." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 115, no. 32 (Aug 7 2018): E7632-E41. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1804938115. Marshall, K. L., D. Saade, N. Ghitani, A. M. Coombs, M. Szczot, J. Keller, T. Ogata, et al. "Piezo2 in Sensory Neurons and Urothelial Cells Coordinates Urination." Nature 588, no. 7837 (Dec 2020): 290-95. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2830-7. Li, X., L. Han, I. Nookaew, E. Mannen, M. J. Silva, M. Almeida, and J. Xiong. "Stimulation of Piezo1 by Mechanical Signals Promotes Bone Anabolism." Elife 8 (Oct 7 2019). doi: 10.7554/eLife.49631. Cahalan, S. M., V. Lukacs, S. S. Ranade, S. Chien, M. Bandell, and A. Patapoutian. "Piezo1 Links Mechanical Forces to Red Blood Cell Volume." Elife 4 (May 22 2015). doi: 10.7554/eLife.07370. Ma, S., S. Cahalan, G. LaMonte, N. D. Grubaugh, W. Zeng, S. E. Murthy, E. Paytas, et al. "Common Piezo1 Allele in African Populations Causes Rbc Dehydration and Attenuates Plasmodium Infection." Cell 173, no. 2 (Apr 5 2018): 443-55 e12. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2018.02.047. Dux, M., J. Rosta, and K. Messlinger. "Trp Channels in the Focus of Trigeminal Nociceptor Sensitization Contributing to Primary Headaches." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 1 (Jan 4 2020). doi: 10.3390/ijms21010342. Previous article back to DISORDER Next article

By Caitlin Kane, Rachel Ko, Patrick Grave, Yvette Marris Message from the Editors in Chief By Caitlin Kane, Rachel Ko, Patrick Grave, Yvette Marris 23 March 2022 Edited by the Committee Illustrated by Quynh Anh Nguyen Another year in science has passed, with 2022 disappearing into 2023. With a mandated return to campus life at the University, there seems a tangible break from the past three years of lockdowns, isolation and online existence. Over the summer holidays, four of our wonderful OmniSci contributers—Andrew, Julia, Lily and Yvette—have written about science that has made a mark in 2022, with topics spanning DNA of the ancient past to the future of art crafted by artificial intelligence. Our writers were supported by editors, Tanya and myself, and the cover and article art for this issue has been created by Quynh Anh. Thanks also goes to our behind-the-scenes events duo, Andrew (again!) and Aisyah, who have been working hard on promotion to showcase the work of our team on this mini-issue, and our treasurer-secretary, Maya, who keeps us all in line. On behalf of the whole team, we're incredibly excited to share our summer issue, 2022: A Year in Science. If you would like to support our work, you can sign up as a member, join our mailing list or get in touch at omniscimag@gmail.com—all this and more on our About Us page. Most importantly, please read on! Previous article Next article

< Back to Issue 6 A Brief History of the Elements: Finding a Seat at the Periodic Table by Xenophon Papas 28 May 2024 Edited by Arwen Nguyen-Ngo Illustrated by Rachel Ko What are we made of and where did it all come from? Such questions have pervaded the minds of scientific thinkers since ancient times and have entered all fields of enquiry, from the physical to the philosophical. Our best scientific theory today asserts that we’re made of atoms, and these atoms come in different shapes and sizes. Fundamentally, they can be described by the number of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) they contain (Jefferson Lab, 2012). Neatly arranged in a grid, these different elements form the periodic table we know and love today; but it was not always this way. The story of how the periodic table of elements came to be harks back to Ancient Greece and winds its way through the enlightenment into the 20th century. It is an unfinished story of which we are at the frontier of today: in search of dark matter and the ultimate answer to what the universe is made of. We may never know for sure exactly what everything in existence consists of, but it’s a pursuit our earliest ancestors would be proud to see us follow. Thales was first in the ancient Greek-speaking world to postulate about the origins of all material things. He theorised that all matter in the universe was made up of just one type of substance – water – and any other forms of solids, liquids and gases were just derivatives thereof. This idea was not initially opposed, given Thales was one of the earliest of the Ancient Greeks to pursue such questions of a scientific nature. Afterall, he’s remembered today as the “Father of Science” in the Western world. As Thales was from Miletus, a city on the coast of the Ionian Sea in modern day Türkiye and part of Magna Graecia in the 6th cent BC, it is not hard to imagine that water was a crucial aspect in trade, agriculture, and daily life at the time. However, this seemed to oversimplify the matter to some of his contemporaries. Empedocles, who was considered more a magician than a philosopher, revised this mono-elemental theorisation in the 5th Century BC. He proposed four basic substances from which all others were made (Mee, 2020). We know them today famously as the four classical elements: Earth, Air, Water and Fire. This asserted a fundamental principle of “fourness”, encompassing the cardinal directions in the Western world during this time. Interestingly, concurrent to this other traditions such as those in China acknowledged five elements and compass points instead. A generation later to Empedocles’ work, Plato embraced his “fourish” formulation. Being heavily influenced by mathematics as the medium through which we make reason of the natural world, Plato related each of these elements to a mathematical object: a convex, regular polyhedron in three-dimensional Euclidean space, otherwise known as a Platonic solid. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, and fire with the tetrahedron. Lastly, the most complicated solid, the dodecahedron – itself made up of composite regular polygons – was associated with the makeup of the constellations and the Heavens themselves, their workings said to be unfathomable by human minds (Ball, 2004). His student, Aristotle, ran with this idea and devised a clever way to break up the elements based on their "qualities”, akin to a first periodic table. These binary roles were hot and cold, wet and dry, with an element containing just two of these qualities each. According to Aristotle, each of these elements could be converted to the other by inverting one of their qualities, seemingly bringing about an early form of alchemy. To these four elements, he also appended a fifth - aether or “pure air” - to fill the expanses of the heavens, which also became associated with the fifth Platonic solid. In the Western World, Aristotle’s word was taken as doctrine for a very long time owing greatly to the fall of Rome and the cultural instability thereafter. Where Europe plummeted into the Dark Ages with a reverence for the scholars of antiquity, scientific and literary endeavour flourished in the Middle East – the word alchemy itself having etymologically Arabic roots. It was not until the late 17th century that the likes of Galileo, Newton, and Descartes revived Western scientific pursuit, and sought to understand how the natural world arranged itself. In the 18th century, new discoveries were being made on the frontiers of science in major cities throughout Europe. In 1772, in Paris, Antoine Lavoisier began work on combustion of materials like phosphorus and sulphur. Lavoisier concluded that if something decomposes into simpler substances, then it is not an element. For example, while water can be turned into a gas when passed over hot iron and is therefore not an element, oxygen and hydrogen are indeed elemental. English chemist John Dalton took after Lavoisier and in 1808 began to arrange elements spatially into a chart, accounting for their various properties. In Strasbourg 1827, Wolfgang Döbereiner recognised that groups of threes arose from the list of elements which behaved similarly, known as “Döbereiner's triads" (Free Animated Education, 2023). John Newlands in 1866 put forward the “Law of Octaves”. Elements with similar properties ended up at regular intervals, dividing the elements into seven groups of eight – hence octaves. However, this method of dividing up the elements broke down in some special cases. Now turning to St. Petersburg, Russia, in February of 1869. Dmitri Mendeleev sits at his desk, with a mess of cards covering the surface of his working space. The professor of chemistry rearranges these elemental cards like a jigsaw puzzle, arranging and rearranging them to align them in accordance with their properties. Supposedly after coming to him in a dream, a pattern emerged. Mendeleev saw the ability for the simple tabulation of the elements based on their atomic number and hence their common properties. This newfound tool, based on Lavoisier’s work a century prior, allowed for the prediction of properties of elements which had not even been discovered yet. Elements which Mendeleev believed to exist, even though they presented as empty gaps in the grid structure of the periodic table. Within just twenty years, Mendeleev’s prediction of the existence of such elements like gallium, scandium, and germanium had been validated with experimental fact. All of this was predicted without knowledge of the true reason for similarities of elemental properties – the electron shell arrangement at a subatomic level. Mendeleev had totally changed the way chemists viewed their discipline and has been immortalised for perhaps the greatest breakthrough work in the history of chemistry (Rouvray, 2019). Today we recognise that all the elements in the universe have origins in the high-pressure hearts of stars. Like a hot furnace, they churn out heavier and heavier elements under their immense internal pressures. Once this life cycle comes to an end, the star erupts into a fiery supernova, releasing even more of the heavier elements we see further down the periodic table. In the last 75 years, scientists have added an additional 24 elements to the periodic table, some of which are so difficult to produce that their half-lives last only a few fractions of a millisecond before decaying away to nothing (Charley, 2012). This begs the question; how do we find new elements? Elements can be created via either fission, splitting apart a heavier atom, or fusion, binding two bodies of atoms together. The heavier an element, that is, the more protons and neutrons in its nucleus, the more unstable it is. Hence it is with great difficulty that scientists attempt to churn out new elements from large particle accelerators, by colliding and combining elements into new ones (Chheda, 2023). The story of physical matter is just one aspect in the search for what “everything” is made of. Dark matter and dark energy – so named because they do not interact with light – have been found to drive the expansion of the universe and the rotation speeds of galaxies. We know remarkably little about these substances, given that they make up around 95% of the total mass of the universe! Without a doubt, we have only just begun the journey to find out what makes up the universe around us. References Chheda, R. (2023, March 31). Can we add new elements to the periodic table? Science ABC. https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/can-we-add-new-elements-to-the-periodic-table.html Charley, S. (2012). How to make an element. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/insidenova/2012/01/how-to-make-an-element.html Free Animated Education. (2023, February 10). Perfecting the periodic table [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7tbMGKGgCRA&ab_channel=FreeAnimatedEducation Jefferson Lab. (2012, November 20). The origin of the elements [Video]. YouTube. Ball, P. (2004). The elements: A very short introduction . Oxford University Press. Mee, N. (2020). Earth, air, fire, and water. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 16–23). https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851950.003.0003 Rouvray, D. (2019). Dmitri Mendeleev. New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/people/dmitri-mendeleev Previous article Next article Elemental back to

How should scientific research and political legislation interact, and what role should they play in public discourse? Climate Change, Vaccines & Lockdowns: How and Why Science Has Become a Polarising Political Debate By Mia Horsfall In light of the compounding climate crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, the discussion around how we implement scientific research into political realms is growing, and with it, the controversy. But perhaps the debate surrounding such contentious issues reveals more about how we communicate our science than the quality of the science itself. Edited by Yen Sim & Andrew Lim Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Janna Dingle The degree to which public rhetoric morphs and formulates enactment of scientific research in topics such as climate change, energy politics and vaccinations has become increasingly evident in recent years, as evidenced by polarising public debates surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic and the ‘School Strike’ movements. The ‘apocalyptic narratives’ employed by climate protesters are often combated with condescension and intellectual elitism propagated by political figures, resulting in a remarkably detached exchange of dialogue and a good deal of reticence but an overwhelming lack of progress. Reluctance to accept COVID-19 vaccinations and lockdowns is indicative more of a dogmatic belief in exertion of liberty at all costs rather than a measured comprehension of the implications of such decisions. Likewise, discussions surrounding implementation of nuclear power showcase the disconnect between scientific research and economic policy making, resulting in conflict and frustration as the two struggle to reconcile. The role of science in political, legal and social spheres is contingent upon public discourses surrounding its relevance and remains largely subservient to public opinion. Scientific matters should increasingly, “be studied in relation to how they impact social structures,” (Holmberg & Alvinius, 2020) and it is in this way we can hope to understand the dimorphic nature of research and its intersection with political and social implications. To understand how scientific discourse shifts from a research-centric discussion to a tool to uphold political ideology, it is crucial to deconstruct the rhetoric utilised by opposing sides of the climate debate to advance support for their cause. Examination of the discourse on different sides of the ‘School Strike’ movement ironically reveals that both sides stem from the same source: an analysis of the authority of youth in political spheres. The succinct, punchy statements used to endorse student climate advocacy relish in the youth of the protesters – “you’ll die of old age, we’ll die of climate change”, “I’d be in school if the earth was cool”, “it’s getting hot in here so take off all your coals,'' (Kamarck, 2019). By focusing the targets of the movement on ‘abstract’ actors such as legal, political and economic ecosystems, the movement distances itself from the accepted scientific consensus and focuses on the issue of the mobilisation of policymakers in climate action. These ‘apocalyptic narratives’ do not question the authority of the science communicated, instead hinging their argument upon the challenge of inciting political change from a youth-driven movement. Their narrative relies on the distinct lack of political influence historically held by youth, and satirises the predicted response of politicians such as the then Federal Minister for Education Dan Tehan who asserted that the strikes were orchestrated by professional activists and children were missing valuable class time (Perinotto & Johnston, 2019). The difficulty then posed is that formulating the protester’s messages from a place of pathos drives the argument further away from the scientifically enforced urgency and enables politically interested individuals to divert the argument from one of scientific claim to one about challenging the authority of youth to speak with regards to politics. Prime Minister Scott Morrison’s suggestion to the school strikers to, “get a bit of context and perspective,” (Perinotto & Johnston, 2019), is saturated not only with elitism but an enforcement of the notion of political superiority, that some knowledge remains incomprehensible to the public sphere and is privy only to the select few. It remains, then, that the biggest obstacle in the school strikers’ position is the unification of scientific authorities, politicians and the emotionally driven and passionate youth. But perhaps the politicisation of climate change has more to do with political dichotomisation than the controversy of the science itself. Chinn, Hart and Soroka assert that, “beliefs about climate change have become a marker of partisan affiliation,” (Chinn, Hart, & Soroka 2020), and this is not the only realm of scientific contention to become politicised. Opposition to government-mandated lockdowns, vaccinations and regulations of genetic modification of food all stem from one crucial point of difference in belief; the degree to which the government should have the ability to regulate everyday happenings of our lives. This is not a new phenomenon. This key difference is at the heart of bipartisanship and is the central debate in almost every political issue. So perhaps the issue is not inherently the politicisation of scientific discourse, as implementation of policy in reference to new scientific findings will inevitably become politicised, but the monotonous rhetoric employed by the left and the right. As Kamarck upholds, “it is the lack of trust in government that may be one of the foundational barriers to effective environmental action,” (Kamarck, 2019). If we take the intent of science as being to seek a degree of objective insight about the nature of the world and its happenings, it will naturally lead to division in political climates saturated by individual motivation and greed. A 2020 American study utilised word frequency analysis software of articles from four major newspapers (New York Times, Chicago Tribune, Los Angeles Times and The Washington Post) to quantitatively determine the number of times scientists’ names were mentioned in regard to phrases such as ‘global warming’ or ‘fracking’, in comparison to politicians (see Figure 1 & 2). Whilst this understandably has to do with matters of climate policy making and does not in and of itself convey an image of the politicised nature of the debate, it does provide significant insight into the shifting obstacles faced in attaining climate action. What provides significantly greater insight is an analysis conducted of the language variance within the media of the parties across the years. From this data, we see that whilst the difference in rhetoric across the two major parties is significant, it is also largely unchanging. It is this divide in political narratives that fosters a sense of distrust and scepticism amongst individuals. Where more left-leaning parties emphasise the social inequalities that will be expounded upon as the consequences of climate change compound, conservatively leaning parties perpetuate the notion that climate action stipulates a greater control of the government on energy politics and enables less agency to the individual. In their narrative, the economic consequences outweigh the benefit of transition to renewable energy systems. From such polarised discourse, it becomes apparent that the way science operates within social spheres has more to do with pre-existing flaws in systemic structures than the quality of the science itself. Figure 1 (2) Figure 2 (2) Of course, a key consideration of how political and activist narratives impact the science that is upheld is through the medialisation of science. ‘Medialisation’ is the concept that science and media should engage in a reciprocal relationship, where scientists use media for broader impact and to advocate for more public funding while the media relies on interest to propagate scientific breakthroughs (Scheufele, 2014). The utility of science comes only from what is accepted and implemented in public opinion, hence scientific practice continues to grow into these frameworks, particularly in discussions around climate change or gene editing technologies. Ultimately, as Scheufele asserts, “the production of reliable knowledge about the natural world has always been a social and political endeavour,” (Scheufele, 2014), one that the media capitalises on to make as economical as possible. That is, it is in most media outlets’ interest to frame politics and science as being at odds with each other as, “coverage increases dramatically if and when issues become engulfed in political or societal controversy,” (Scheufele, 2014). Whilst science cannot and should never be removed from subjugation to moral scrutiny, discourse remains dominated by discussion surrounding the legitimacy of those advocating for one side or the other, rather than the quality of the science itself. Of course bias exists in media outlets , but is propagated by the bias of the consumers, as a consequence of ‘motivated reasoning’. That is, individuals subconsciously place more weight upon information that confirms pre-existing viewpoints and divert more energy into finding flawed reasoning for all that does not concur with preconceived perceptions. The result is a positive feedback loop that is hard to curtail. Individuals form opinions from information they are exposed to in the media, subconsciously seek further information to fortify their initial opinion, leading to opinion reinforcement. In this way, microcosmic ‘mediated realities’ form, each individual inhabiting a vastly different scientific landscape than those of the opposite opinion. In these realities, it is the implications of policy making rather than objective reasoning about the science itself that prevails, resulting in scientific breakthrough perpetually existing subserviently to the opinion of the people, irrespective of whether that opinion is informed. This consequently influences what scientific research is allocated what proportion of public funding, inadvertently providing a quantitative discriminator in what ‘sides’ are upheld in the media. So, what role should science play in political discourse? How do we ensure a mediation of scientific advice and democratic decision making? Darrin Durant of the University of Melbourne unpacks this question, deliberating on whether science should assume a ‘servant’ or ‘partner’ role when it exists within public discourse. Durant argues that if science were to assume the role of a servant (acting in an advisory position to politics), public perception would descend into a degree of populism, overrun by conspiracists and anti-pluralists. Rather, if it were to exist as a ‘partner’, legitimising the authority held by scientific figures, a degree of objectivity could be applied to an otherwise dynamic and transient political landscape. It is only by bridging the political dichotomy that prevails in media and social spheres that scientific discourse will cease to fall prey to political weaponization, existing as a level-ground for rational debate rather than morphing in accordance with ideology. References: Alvinius, A & Holmberg, A. (2020). Children’s protest in relation to the climate emergency: A qualitative study on a new form of resistance promoting political and social change. SAGE Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0907568219879970. Chinn, S., Hart, P., & Soroka, S. (2020). Politicization and Polarization in Climate Change News Content, 1985-2017. SAGE Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1075547019900290. Durant, D. (2018). Servant or partner? The role of expertise and knowledge in democracy. The Conversation.https://theconversation.com/servant-or-partner-the-role-of-expertise-and-knowledge-in-democracy-92026. Durant, D. (2021). Who are you calling 'anti-science'? How science serves social and political agendas. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/who-are-you-calling-anti-science-how-science-serves-social-and-political-agendas-74755 . Feldman, H. (2020). A rhetorical perspective on youth environmental activism. Jcom.sissa.it. Retrieved 11 September 2021, from https://jcom.sissa.it/sites/default/files/documents/JCOM_1906_2020_C07.pdf . Kamarck, E. (2019). The challenging politics of climate change. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-challenging-politics-of-climate-change/ . Perinotto, T., & Johnston, P. (2019). What our leaders said about the school climate change strike. The Fifth Estate. https://thefifthestate.com.au/urbanism/climate-change-news/what-our-leaders-said-about-the-school-climate-change-strike/ . Scheufele, D. (2014). Science communication as political communication. Pnas.org. https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/111/Supplement_4/13585.full.pdf. The best climate strike signs from around the globe – in pictures. The Guardian. (2021). https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/gallery/2019/sep/20/the-best-climate-strike-signs-from-around-the-globe-in-pictures . Image reference - https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1075547019900290

< Back to Issue 2 Maxing the Vax: why some countries are losing the COVID vaccination race As Australia’s COVID vaccination rate reaches 90% for the adult population, are you aware of countries struggling with their vaccination program? This piece discusses three countries, Brazil, Papua New Guinea, and India, and the key challenges they face in increasing their vaccination rate. by Grace Law 10 December 2021 Edited by Neisha Baker Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Most Australians are now fully vaccinated against COVID-19, but are you aware of how other countries are handling their vaccination programs? Each country has its own set of challenges and setbacks it must overcome in getting its citizens vaccinated. The success and failure of vaccination programs depend on how well these are addressed, and how the people respond. Political, economic, geographical, and educational factors can have a huge impact on vaccination success. Below, I will discuss the key challenges affecting COVID-19 vaccination in three countries, Brazil, Papua New Guinea, and India, as well as its impact on the country’s vaccination rate. Brazil – the nation that changed their fate Brazil has suffered the highest overall death toll in Latin America which is also the second-highest in the world after the United States. Brazil’s President Jair Bolsonaro was strongly opposed to lockdowns, restrictions, and public-health measures such as masks, which some local areas sought to impose (1). He has also spread disinformation regarding the coronavirus and vaccines, such as posting a video falsely associating the coronavirus vaccines with the onset of AIDS, resulting in Facebook removing it after public outcry (2). As a leader, his words and actions have major roles in influencing opinion and informing the public. While the number of preventable deaths is shocking, the predicted wave of destruction by the Delta variant has not materialised. Over 60% of the population is fully vaccinated despite the mixed messages and deterrence from the central government (3). The city of Serrana became the testing site of the Chinese vaccine Sinovac with most adults being willing towards receiving the vaccine (4). Consequently, the symptomatic cases, hospitalisation and deaths in the area all fell dramatically, becoming a place of envy for the neighbouring communities (5). This initial success also offers hope for low and middle-income countries, which may rely on this cheaper vaccine (6). Despite governmental resistance throughout the pandemic, Brazilians have defied the odds and faced the virus as a united community. Local leaders have challenged the national government to ensure suitable public health orders are enforced, and citizens have actively sought vaccination, preventing further COVID-19 devastation. Papua New Guinea – our struggling neighbour One of Australia’s closest neighbours, Papua New Guinea (PNG), is among the countries with the lowest vaccination rate in the world. According to Our World in Data, only 2% of the population is fully vaccinated (7). One of the most difficult issues to address is mistrust in the vaccine, due to low health education, inadequate health and general resources, and a political and historical distrust in the government. PNG relies on Australia and New Zealand’s AstraZeneca donations to acquire COVID vaccines, as well as Australian embassy staff to help run pop-up clinics in shopping centres. A Chinese medical team has also been working outside the government to unofficially administer the Sinopharm vaccine at a hospital clinic, leading to speculations of politically-motivated manipulation and interference (8). PNG is caught between two great powers, and the already sceptical PNG people are neglected and uninformed about vaccine efficacy, safety, and choices (9). Low science literacy and mistrust in political institutions have made it extremely difficult to convince people to get vaccinated (10). This has furthered the development of conspiracy theories, which interplay with cultural beliefs around witchcraft and superstitions (11). Despite the recent introduction of the “no jab, no job” policy, people are turning to mass resignations or the acquisition of fraudulent certificates instead of receiving the COVID-19 vaccine (12). Australia recently offered aviation lift services to high priority provinces, delivering much-needed emergency supplies to geographically isolated areas in PNG (13). A lot of work is still needed in order to increase the vaccination uptake rate in PNG. Stronger and more impactful campaign messaging will be required to increase public demand for vaccines (14). Foreign aid and assistance should prioritise effective vaccination and long-term health improvement over political agenda (15). The priority must be to stop the pandemic devastation by getting people vaccinated, and addressing long-term infrastructure, funding, and governance issues. India – great challenges and great ambitions India has the second-largest population in the world and it has struggled to source an adequate number of vaccines for its people. The government was ambitious that local manufacturing of the Indian vaccine Covaxin would be sufficient for domestic consumption. Instead, Bharat Biotech’s newest facility in Bengaluru reports quality issues in its initial batches, leading to a delay and vaccine shortage (16). During the country’s destructive second wave from April to June of 2021, the vaccine shortage was exacerbated by the government hesitating to approve vaccines developed and manufactured overseas. Local supply was also hindered by raw material shortages at the beginning of 2021 (17). While the government has sought higher vaccine administrations, setbacks including delays in manufacture, lack of doses received from overseas, and difficulties in obtaining regulatory approval, have contributed to the delayed and restricted nature of the vaccination program. Initially, the people met the vaccination program with great enthusiasm, and the government aimed to vaccinate all adults against COVID-19 by 31 December 2021. But vaccine uptake has plateaued and declined since October, and there are fears this target will not be met. Many factors have contributed to the decreased vaccine uptake, including vaccine shortage, barriers to vaccination such as lockdowns, high infection rates causing fear of visiting vaccination centres, and misinformation particularly in under-resourced rural areas (18). Although an improved COVID-19 vaccination program could have reduced the severity of the second wave, attention now is on maintaining the vaccination uptake rate. As the Indian government started to offer free vaccinations to all adults, citizens living in poverty have had the chance to be vaccinated as well. While many countries wish to manufacture their own vaccines at a fraction of the cost of the pharmaceutical giants, quality control and quality assurance remain incredibly complex issues to tackle (19). Lower-income countries require sufficient guidance and support, and Shahid Jameel, a virologist from Ashoka University in New Delhi says, ‘We can’t fix vaccine inequalities until vaccine manufacturing is distributed.’ (20) Conclusion Numerous factors impact vaccine uptake, with each country facing its own set of challenges. Mismanagement, limited infrastructure, and rampant misinformation were highlighted here, but there are many problems impacting vaccination programs around the world. Urgently addressing these problems will be needed to reduce vaccination inequality around the world, and hopefully, reach the end of the pandemic very soon. For more information on COVID-19 and the vaccine, please visit the VaxFACTS website created by the University of Melbourne: https://www.vaxfacts.org.au/ References Jake Horton, “Covid Brazil: Why could Bolsonaro face charges?” BBC News, published 27 October, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-56663217. “Facebook removes video in which Brazil’s Bolsonaro links coronavirus vaccines with AIDS,” Washington Post, published 25 October, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/10/25/facebook-papers-live-updates/#link-UA7IQVP5E5D2VGUQX7OJQBCFIE. “Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations,” Our World in Data, published 26 November, 2021, https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations?country=OWID_WRL. Mauricio Savarese, “Sinovac vaccine restores a Brazilian city to near normal,” Associated Press News, published 2 June, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/caribbean-brazil-coronavirus-pandemic-business-health-20bd94d28ac7b373d7a8f3f9c557e5b6. “Sinovac vaccine restores a Brazilian city to near normal.” “Sinovac vaccine restores a Brazilian city to near normal.” “Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations.” Natalie Whiting, “PNG caught in China-Australia power play as COVID-19 Delta variant infiltrates Pacific nation,” ABC News, published 2 August, 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-08-02/png-caught-between-australia-and-china-as-it-fights-delta/100329206. “PNG caught in China-Australia power play as COVID-19 Delta variant infiltrates Pacific nation.” Mihai Sora, “Overcoming community resistance to vaccination in Papua New Guinea,” The Interpreter, published 26 October, 2021, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/overcoming-community-resistance-vaccination-papua-new-guinea. Liam Fox and Marian Faa, “Health workers face death threats as COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy takes hold in PNG,” ABC News, published 10 September, 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-10/png-vaccine-hesitancy-papua-new-guinea-covid-19/100444380. Fraser Macdonald, “Just 1.7 per cent of PNG residents are vaccinated against COVID. Why are they so resistant?” SBS News, published 8 November, 2021, https://www.sbs.com.au/news/just-1-7-per-cent-of-png-residents-are-vaccinated-against-covid-why-are-they-so-resistant/72c40029-dec8-4202-b436-31562d983fbc. “COVID-19 partnership with Papua New Guinea strengthened” Minister for Foreign Affairs, published 27 October, 2021, https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/marise-payne/media-release/covid-19-partnership-papua-new-guinea-strengthened. “Overcoming community resistance to vaccination in Papua New Guinea.” “Overcoming community resistance to vaccination in Papua New Guinea.” Sreenivasan Jain, “Quality Issues Behind Covaxin Shortage: Government vaccine panel chief,” New Delhi Television, published 2 August, 2021, https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/quality-issues-behind-covaxin-shortage-government-vaccine-panel-chief-2500998. Shruti Menon, “India vaccination: Does it have enough doses for all adults?” BBC News, published 3 August, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-55571793. Liji Thomas, “Factors predicrting vaccine hesitancy in India,” News Medical, published 26 September, 2021, https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210926/Factors-predicting-vaccine-hesitancy-in-India.aspx. Amy Maxmen, “The fight to manufacture COVID vaccine in lower-income countries,” Nature, published 16 September, 2021, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02383-z. “The fight to manufacture COVID vaccine in lower-income countries.” Previous article back to DISORDER Next article

< Back to Issue 7 Interstellar Overdrive: Secrets of our Distant Universe by Sarah Ibrahimi 22 October 2024 edited by Hendrick Lin illustrated by Amanda Agustinus “Somewhere, something incredible is waiting to be known” - Carl Sagan Humanity's innate curiosity and desire of uncovering the unknown has been the spark for mankind's explorations since the beginning of time. From Columbus' expedition across the Atlantic to discover the New World, to Armstrong's first steps on the Moon's surface, we have experienced technological advancement at a lightning pace over the course of human history. Perhaps the most enthralling of these advances has been the scientific quest to unveil the true nature of our universe - the stars, the planets and the beings that exist within it and far beyond. And now, a novel and revolutionary tool has been developed to deepen our understanding of the cosmos. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) developed by NASA is the largest of its kind to ever be placed in space. Launched on Christmas Day in 2021 on board the Ariane 5 rocket, it travelled 1.5 million kilometres equipped with various high-resolution and high-sensitivity instruments, allowing scientists the ability to capture detailed infrared astronomical images of our old and distant universe (NASA, 2022a). In a matter of less than a year, the deepest infrared image known to mankind was produced. Named Webb's First Deep Field, it was unveiled by U.S. President Joe Biden on June 11th, 2022 at the White House, encapsulating never-before-seen perspectives of our universe. With this revelation, a new gateway has been opened into answering the countless questions of the early universe pondered by astrophysicists and the public alike. Confronting viewers with an array of contrasting colours and eccentric shapes, Webb’s First Deep Field can be hard to interpret ( figure 1 ). Figure 1. Webb’s First Deep Field: SMACS 07223 Note. From/Adapted from Webb’s First Deep Field: SMACS 07223 [photo] by James Webb Space Telescope. NASA, 2022b. https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2022/035/01G7DCWB7137MYJ05CSH1Q5Z1Z?page=1&keyword=smac Copyright 2022, NASA. But with a careful eye and some clever detective work, we can begin to decipher the secrets contained within. For example, the bright lights depicting what appear to be stars are rather entire galaxies, each a gateway to billions of stars. In addition, Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) is able to capture distant galaxies with the sharpest focus to date, unravelling important features from their faint complexities. Appreciation for this image increases exponentially once we begin to comprehend the magnitude of its importance - it depicts the galaxy cluster, SMACS 0723, exactly as it looked 4.6 billion years ago! In other words, this image is a glimpse back to a time well before humans or any life forms existed. Amongst the myriad of initial images produced by JWST, one particular point of interest would be the Southern Ring Nebula illustrating the dying NGC 3132 star ( figure 2 ). This can be seen through the expulsion of its gases and outer layers, producing striking imagery through Webb’s NIRCam. Viewers may also notice the bright lights representing individual galaxies in the nebula's background - again, not to be mistaken as stars. JWST’s ability to capture such a pivotal point in the trajectory of a star's life is crucial in assisting scientists to calculate the volumes of gas and dust present, as well as their unique molecular compositions. Figure 2. Southern Ring Nebula captured by JWST Note. From/Adapted from Southern Ring Nebula [photo] by James Webb Space Telescope. NASA, 2022c. https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2022/033/01G70BGTSYBHS69T7K3N3ASSEB Copyright 2022, NASA. The efforts to produce such groundbreaking images and insights into the universe did not happen overnight. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, was an important predecessor to the JWST. Whether it was confirming the existence of black holes, or the Nobel Prize winning discovery demonstrating the accelerating rate of expansion of the universe, the Hubble Space Telescope laid the foundations for the JWST to flourish. These marvellations revealed by the JWST would also not be possible without the efforts of countless scientists to improve the technological potential of the Hubble Telescope. As a result of these developments, JWST contains a larger primary mirror, deeper infrared vision, and is optimised for longer ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, all with the aim to increase the telescope’s ability to capture profound images of our universe. Nonetheless, a number of hypotheses relevant to matters such as dark energy, exoplanets, and infrared astrophysics remain unanswered. As a next step forward, the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope is set to launch in 2027 with the capacity to produce a panoramic view two hundred times greater than the infrared view generated by Hubble and JWST. The questions that continue to itch our minds remain limitless. As Einstein once lamented, "the more I learn, the more I realise how much I don't know”. There is still so much that remains to be discovered. However, the JWST illustrates that through collaborative scientific efforts, humankind can begin to unravel the many mysteries that govern our universe, one galaxy at a time. References NASAa. (2022, July 12). NASA’s Webb Delivers Deepest Infrared Image of Universe yet. https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/nasas-webb-delivers-deepest-infrared-image-of-universe-yet/ NASAb. (2022, July 11). Webb’s First Deep Field . Webb Space Telescope. https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2022/035/01G7DCWB7137MYJ05CSH1Q5Z1Z?page=1&keyword=smac NASAc. (2022, July 11). Southern Ring Nebula. Webb Space Telescope. https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2022/033/01G70BGTSYBHS69T7K3N3ASSEB Previous article Next article apex back to

< Back to Issue 6 Cosmic Carbon Vs Artificial Intelligence by Gaurika Loomba 28 May 2024 Edited by Rita Fortune Illustrated by Semko van de Wolfshaar “There are many peculiar aspects of the laws of nature that, had they been slightly different, would have precluded the existence of life” - Paul Davies, 2003 Almost four billion years ago, there was nothing but an incredibly hot, dense speck of matter. This speck exploded, and the universe was born. Within the first hundredth of a billionth of a trillionth of a trillionth second, the universe began expanding at an astronomical rate. For the next 400 million years, the universe was made of hydrogen, helium, and a dash of lithium – until I was born. And thus began all life as you know it. So how did I, the element of life, the fuel of industries, and the constituent of important materials, originate? Stars. Those shiny, mystical dots in the night sky are giant balls of hot hydrogen and helium gas. Only in their centres are temperatures high enough to facilitate the collision of three helium-4 nuclei within a tiny fraction of a second. I am carbon-12, the element born out of this extraordinary reaction. My astronomical powers come from my atomic structure; I have six electrons, six protons, and six neutrons. The electrons form teardrop shaped clouds, spread tetrahedrally around my core, my nucleus, where the protons and neutrons reside. My petite size and my outer electrons allow my nucleus to exert a balanced force on other atoms that I bond with. This ability to make stable bonds makes me a major component of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates, the building blocks of life. The outer electrons also allow me to form chains, sheets, and blocks of matter, such as diamond, with other carbon-12 atoms. Over the years of evolution, organic matter buried in Earth formed fossil fuels, so I am also the fuel that runs the modern world. As if science wasn’t enough, my spiritual significance reiterates my importance for the existence of life. According to the Hindu philosophy, the divine symbol, ‘Aum’ is the primordial sound of the Cosmos and ‘Swastika’, its visual embodiment. ‘Alpha’ and ‘Omega’, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, represent the beginning and ending, that is the ‘Eternal’ according to Christian spirituality. When scientists photographed my atomic structure, spiritual leaders saw the ‘Aum’ in my three-dimensional view and the ‘Swastika’ in my two-dimensional view. Through other angles, the ‘Alpha’ and ‘Omega’ have also been visualised (Knowledge of Reality, 2001). I am the element of life, and within me is the divine consciousness. I am the beginning and I am the end. My greatness has been agreed upon by science and spirituality. In my absence, there would be no life, an idea humans call carbon chauvinism. This ideology and my greatness remained unquestioned for billions of years, until the birth of Artificial Intelligence. I shaped the course of evolution for humans to be self-conscious and intelligent life forms. With the awareness of self, I aspired for humans to connect back to the Cosmos. But now my intelligent toolmakers, aka humans, are building intelligent tools. Intelligence and self-consciousness, which took nature millions of years to generate, is losing its uniqueness. Unfortunately, if software can be intelligent, there is nothing to stop it becoming conscious in the future. Soon, the earth will be populated by silicon-based entities that can compete with my best creation. Does this possibility compromise my superiority? A lot of you may justifiably think so. The truth is that I am the beginning. Historically, visionaries foresaw asteroid attacks as the end to human life. These days, climate change, which is an imbalance of carbon in the environment, is another prospective end. Now, people believe that conscious AI will outlive humans. Suggesting that I will not be the end; that my powers and superiority will be snatched by AI. So the remaining question is, who will be the end? I could tell you the truth, but I want to see who is with me at the end. The choice is yours. References Davies, P. (2003). Is anyone out there? https://www.theguardian.com/education/2003/jan/22/highereducation .uk Knowledge of Reality (2001). Spiritual Secrets in the Carbon Atom . https://www.sol.com.au/kor/11_02.htm Previous article Next article Elemental back to

< Back to Issue 5 Wicked Invaders of the Wild Serenie Tsai 24 October 2023 Edited by Krisha Darji Illustrated by Jennifer Nguyen Since the beginning of time, there has been a continuous flow of species in and out of regions that establishes a foundation for ecosystems. When species are introduced into new environments and replicate excessively to interfere with native species, they become invasive. Invasive species refer to those that spread into new areas and pose a threat to other species. Factors contributing to their menacing status include overfeeding native species, lack of predators, and outcompeting native species (Sakai et al., 2001). Invasive species shouldn’t be confused with feral species which are domestic animals that have reverted to their wild state, or pests which are organisms harmful to human activity (Contrera-Abarca et al., 2022; Hill, 1987). Furthermore, not all introduced species are invasive; crops such as wheat, tomato and rice have been integrated with native agriculture successfully. Many species were introduced accidentally and turned invasive; however, some were intentionally introduced to manage other species, and a lack of foresight resulted in detrimental ecological impacts. Each year, invasive species cost the global economy over a trillion dollars in damages (Roth, 2019). Claimed ecological benefits of invasive species Contrary to the name, invasive species could potentially benefit the invaded ecosystem. Herbivores can reap the benefits of the introduced biodiversity, and native plants can increase their tolerance (Brändle et al., 2008; Mullerscharer, 2004). Deer and goats aid in suppressing introduced grasses and inhibit wildfires (Fornoni, 2010). Likewise, species such as foxes and cats have the capacity to regulate the number of rats and rabbits. Furthermore, megafaunal extinction has opened opportunities to fill empty niches, for example, camels could fill the ecological niche of a now-extinct giant marsupial (Chew et al., 1965; Weber, 2017). Thus, studies indicate the possibility of species evolving to fill vacant niches (Meachen et al., 2014). Below, I’ll explore the rise and downfall of invasive species in Australia. Cane toad Cane toads are notorious for their unforeseen invasion. Originally introduced as a biological control for cane beetles in 1935, their rookie status was advantageous to their proliferation and dominance over native species (Freeland & Martin, 1985). Several native predators were overthrown and native fauna in Australia lacked resistance to the cane toad’s poison used as a defence mechanism (Smith & Philips, 2006). However, research suggests an evolutionary adaptation to such poison (Philips &Shine, 2006). There isn't a universal method to regulate cane toads, so efforts to completely eradicate cane toads are futile. However, populations are kept low by continuously monitoring areas and targeting cane toad eggs or their adult form. Common Myna The origins of Common Myna introduced into New South Wales and Victoria are uncertain; however, it was introduced into Northern Queensland as a mechanism to predate on grasshoppers and cane beetles(Neville & Liindsay, 2011) and introduced into Mauritius to control locust plagues (Bauer, 2023). The Common Myna poses an alarming threat to ecosystems and mankind, its severity is elucidated by its position in the world’s top 100 invasive species list (Lowe et al., 2000). It has spurred human health concerns including the spread of mites and acting as a vector for diseases destructive to human and farm stock (Tidemann, 1998). Myna also has a vicious habit of fostering competition with cavity-nesting native birds, forcing them and their eggs from their nest, however, the extent of this is unclear, and the influence of habitat destruction needs to be considered (Grarock et al., 2013). The impact of this bird lacks empirical evidence, so appropriate management is undecided (Grarock et al., 2012). However, modification of habitats could be advantageous as the Myna impact urban areas more, whereas intervening in their food resources would be rendered useless with their highly variable diet (Brochier et al., 2012). Zebra mussels Zebra mussels accidentally invaded Australia's aquatic locality when introduced by the ballast water of cargo ships. From an ecological perspective, Zebra Mussels overgrow the shells of native molluscs and create an imbalance within the ecosystem (Dzierżyńska-Białończyk et al., 2018). From a societal perspective, it colonizes docks, ship hulls, and water pipes and damages power plants (Lovell et al., 2006) Controlling the spread of Zebra Mussels includes manual removal, chlorine, thermal treatment and more. Control methods It is crucial to deploy preventative methods to mitigate the spread of invasive species before it becomes irreversible. Few known control methods are employed for certain types of animals but with no guarantee of success. Some places place bounties on catching the animals, however, the results of this technique are conflicting. In 1893, foxes were the target of financial incentives, but the scheme was deemed ineffective (Saunders et al., 2010). However, government bounties were introduced for Tasmanian tigers in 1888, which drastically caused a population decline and their eventual extinction (National Museum of Australia, 2019). Similarly, the prevalence of Cane Toads became unbearable, and in response, armies were deployed, and fences in rural communities were funded. Moreover, in 2007, inspired by a local pub’s scheme to hand out beers in exchange for cane toads, the government staged a “Toad Day Out” to establish a bounty for cane toads (Williams, 2011). Invasive species are detrimental to ecosystems, whether introduced intentionally or by accident, management of species is still a work in progress. References Lowe S., Browne M., Boudjelas S., & De Poorter M. (2000) 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species: A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database . The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). Bauer, I. L. (2023). T he oral repellent–science fiction or common sense? Insects, vector- borne diseases, failing strategies, and a bold proposition. Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines, 9(1), 7. Brändle, M., Kühn, I., Klotz, S., Belle, C., & Brandl, R. (2008). Species richness of herbivores on exotic host plants increases with time since introduction of the host. Diversity and Distributions, 14(6), 905–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00511.x Brochier, B., Vangeluwe, D., & Van den Berg, T. (2010). Alien invasive birds. Revue scientifique et technique, 29(2), 217. Chicago. Cayley, N. W., & Lindsey, T. What bird is that?: a completely revised and updated edition of the classic Australian ornithological work . Chew, R. M., & Chew, A. E. (1965). The Primary Productivity of a Desert-Shrub ( Larrea tridentata ) Community . Ecological Monographs, 35(4), 355–375. https://doi.org/10.2307/1942146 Contreras-Abarca, R., Crespin, S. J., Moreira-Arce, D., & Simonetti, J. A. (2022). Redefining feral dogs in biodiversity conservation . Biological Conservation, 265, 109434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109434 Fornoni, J. (2010). Ecological and evolutionary implications of plant tolerance to herbivory. Functional Ecology, 25(2), 399–407. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01805.x Freeland, W. J., & Martin, K. C. (1985). The rate of range expansion by Bufo marinus in Northern Australia , 1980-84 . Wildlife Research, 12(3), 555-559. Grarock, K., Lindenmayer, D. B., Wood, J. T., & Tidemann, C. R. (2013). Does human- induced habitat modification influence the impact of introduced species? A case study on cavity-nesting by the introduced common myna ( Acridotheres tristis ) and two Australian native parrots. Environmental Management, 52, 958-970. G. Smith, J., & L. Phillips, B. (2006). Toxic tucker: the potential impact of Cane Toads on Australian reptiles . Pacific Conservation Biology, 12(1), 40. https://doi.org/10.1071/pc060040 G. Smith J, L. Phillips B. Toxic tucker: the potential impact of Cane Toads on Australian reptiles. Pacific Conservation Biology [Internet]. 2006;12(1):40. Available from: http://www.publish.csiro.au/pc/PC060040 Hill, D. S. (1987). Agricultural Insect Pests of Temperate Regions and Their Control . In Google Books. CUP Archive. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3-w8AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA27&dq=pests+definition&ots=90_-WiF_MZ&sig=pKxuVjDJ_bZ3iNMb5TpfXA16ENI#v=onepage&q=pests%20definition&f=false Lovell, S. J., Stone, S. F., & Fernandez, L. (2006). The Economic Impacts of Aquatic Invasive Species: A Review of the Literature. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 35(1), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1068280500010157 Meachen, J. A., Janowicz, A. C., Avery, J. E., & Sadleir, R. W. (2014). Ecological Changes in Coyotes ( Canis latrans ) in Response to the Ice Age Megafaunal Extinctions . PLoS ONE, 9(12), e116041. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116041 Mullerscharer, H. (2004). Evolution in invasive plants: implications for biological control . Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 19(8), 417–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2004.05.010 ANU. Myna problems. (n.d.). Fennerschool-Associated.anu.edu.au . http://fennerschool- associated.anu.edu.au//myna/problem.html National Museum of Australia. (2019). Extinction of thylacine | National Museum of Australia . Nma.gov.au . https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/extinction-of-thylacine Cayley, N. W. & Lindsey T. (2011) What bird is that?: a completely revised and updated edition of the classic Australian ornithological work . Walsh Bay, N.S.W.: Australia’s Heritage Publishing. Phillips, B. L., & Shine, R. (2006). An invasive species induces rapid adaptive change in a native predator: cane toads and black snakes in Australia . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 273(1593), 1545–1550. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3479 Roth, A. (2019, July 3). Why you should never release exotic pets into the wild. Animals. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/exotic-pets-become-invasive-species Sakai, A. K., Allendorf, F. W., Holt, J. S., Lodge, D. M., Molofsky, J., With, K. A., Baughman, S., Cabin, R. J., Cohen, J. E., Ellstrand, N. C., McCauley, D. E., O’Neil, P., Parker, I. M., Thompson, J. N., & Weller, S. G. (2001). The Population Biology of Invasive Species. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics , 32(1), 305–332. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114037 Saunders, G. R., Gentle, M. N., & Dickman, C. R. (2010). The impacts and management of foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) in Australia . Mammal review, 40(3), 181-211. Weber, L. (2013). Plants that miss the megafauna. Wildlife Australia, 50(3), 22–25. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/ielapa.555395530308043 Williams, G. (2011). 100 Alien Invaders . In Google Books. Bradt Travel Guides. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qtS9TksHmOUC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=invasive+species+australia+bounty+ Wicked back to